In this study, rural households livelihood strategies in communities around Fort Hare and Middle Drift dairy projects in the Nkonkobe Municipality are explored from a household perspective. Rural communities around Fort Hare and Middle Drift dairy projects in Eastern Cape, South Africa are found choosing a multiple of livelihood portfolios that are linked to dairy project activities to increase food, generate income, and safeguard against risks and shocks. The dairy projects in rural areas can reduced the problem of shrinking livelihood options in rural areas were most of the households are relying on government grants which has characterised the rural areas with long queues during month ends. The main objectives of this study are, to assess whether the rural dairy projects set goals are being achieved; to identify dominant livelihood strategies of households living around dairy projects in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa and to identify determinant factors influencing rural households around dairy projects to choose certain livelihood strategies that improve their welfare. The study analysed socio-economic survey data that had been collected from households in six rural villages in Nkonkobe Municipality surrounding the Fort Hare and Middle drift dairy projects. The stratified and random sampling method was used. The descriptive analysis comparing the livelihood portfolios’ in the six rural villages around Fort hare and Middle Drift dairy projects has revealed that there is an increasingly important role of the non-farm economy in the area (income from activities not linked to farming) as compared to farming, non-labour (income from remittances and government grants) and non-farm activities that are combined with farming (non-farm and farming activities). The multinomial logistic regression model revealed, with respect to the household variables, social-economic and institutional related variables as some of the barriers faced by poor households in rural areas sharing boundaries with rural dairy projects to enter into various livelihood strategies. Results from this study outlined that rural communities around dairy projects do not rely much on one livelihood pathway but they link multiple strategies together to improve their standard of living. The study, therefore, conclude that rural dairy projects with activities that are complementing with rural livelihood pathways available can be trusted as a reliable and sustainable livelihood source to reduce poverty in communities which share boundaries with rural dairy projects.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of supplementing oat silage (OS) with lucerne (LH) and oat hay (OH) on the production performance of lactating Jersey cows, as well as comparing the ruminal degradability of LH, OH and OS III Holstein and Jersey cows receiving a high forage diet and a high concentrate diet. In the first trial, five diets containing different combinations of OS and LH together with concentrate mixtures providing 26, 23, 20, 17 and 14% crude protein (CP) were fed to lactating Jersey cows. Lucerne hay was fed at 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 kg DM/day while OS was fed ad libitum. Cows receiving only OS as a forage source had a lower (P<0.05) dry matter (DM) intake and produced less milk protein (P<0.05). Milk and fat yields as well as milk urea nitrogen (MUN) levels did not differ (P>0.05) between treatments. In the second trial, OS was fed with OH and a concentrate mixture containing 26% CP to lactating Jersey cows. Oat hay was fed at 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 kg DMiday while OS was fed ad libitum. Cows that received OS together with 4 and 6kg OH, respectively had higher (P<0.05) DM intakes. Milk, fat, and protein yields as well as MUN levels did not differ (P>O.05) between treatments. The ruminal degradability of LH, OH and OS in Holstein and Jersey cows receiving (i) a high forage and (ii) a high concentrate diet was determined. The two breeds were also compared in terms of rumen pH levels, volatile fatty acids (VF A) and rumen ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) concentrations as affected by time after feeding. The ruminal degradability of freeze dried (FD), oven dried (OD) and fresh oat silage (FS) in Jersey cows receiving a high forage diet was also determined. The ruminal DM, CP and NDF degradability of LH was higher (P<O.05) than that of OH and OS in both Holstein and Jersey cows when they were fed either a high forage or a high concentrate diet. When cows were fed a high forage diet, the effective DM degradability of OS was higher (P<O.05) in Holsteins although the CP degradation rates of LH and OH were higher (P<O.05) in Jerseys. When they were fed a high concentrate diet, Jerseys had higher (P<O.05) effective DM and NDF degradabilities and higher (P<O.05) DM and NDF degradation rates in LH while Holsteins had higher (P<O.05) effective CP degradability levels than Jerseys in OS. After feeding a high forage diet, pH levels declined while VFA and NH3-N concentrations increased (P<O.05) in both breeds. Jerseys had higher rumen pH, lower (P<O.05) VFA and lower NH3-N concentrations than Holsteins throughout the study. When cows were fed a high concentrate diet, Jerseys had higher (P<O.05) pH than Holsteins. A post-feeding decline (P<O.05) in pH was observed in both breeds. Fresh oat silage had a lower (P<O.05) effective degradability and degradation rates for DM, CP and NDF in comparison to FD and OD oat silage. The DM, CP and NDF degradation rates, as well as effective NDF degradability were higher (P<O.05) for FD silage, but effective DM and CP degradabilities were higher (P<O.05) for OD oat silage. It was concluded that on an oat silage diet, lactating Jersey cows should receive a minimum of 2kg LH or 4 to 6kg oat hay together with ad libitum OS to improve DM intake. When cows were fed a high concentrate diet, the ruminal degradability appeared to be superior in Jerseys than Holsteins. Jerseys also had higher rumen pH levels lower VFA and NH3-N concentrations than Holsteins. Feeding interval affects the rumen environment, pH declines while VF A and NH3-N concentrations increased. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om die effek van die aanvulling van hawerkuilvoer met lusemhooi (LH) en hawerhooi (HH) op die melkproduksie van Jerseykoeie te bepaal. Hiermee saam is die rumen degradeerbaarheid van hawerkuilvoer en lusemhooi ondersoek in Jersey en Holsteinkoeie wat 'n hoe-ruvoer en 'n hoe-kragvoer gebaseerde dieet ontvang het. In die eerste proef is vyf diete met verskillende peile van hawerkuilvoer en lusernhooi saam met kragvoere van verskillende ruproteienpeile (26, 23, 20, 17 en 14% RP) aan 10 lakterende Jerseykoeie gevoer. Hawerkuilvoer is ad libitum voorsien en lusemhooi is teen vlakke van 0, 2, 4,6 en Skg droemateriaal (DM) per dag gevoer. Die DM-inname en melkproteienproduksie van koeie wat hawerkuilvoer as die enigste ruvoerbron ontvang het, was laer (P<0.05) as ander ruvoerkombinasies. Die melk- en vetproduksie, asook melk-ureumstikstofpeile het nie tussen behandelings verskil nie (P>0.05). In die tweede proef is hawerkuilvoer saam met hawerhooi (soortgelyk as Proef 1) gevoer. Die kragvoerkomponent van al die ruvoerkombinasies het 26% RP bevat. Die koeie wat hawerkuilvoer en 4 of 6kg hawerhooi as ruvoere ontvang het, het hoer (P<O.05) droemateriaalinnames gehad. Melk, vet en proteienproduksie asook melk-ureumstikstofpeile het nie tussen ruvoerkombinasies verskil nie (P>O.05). Die rumendegradeerbaarheid van lusemhooi, hawerhooi en hawerkuilvoer is bepaal in Holstein en Jerseykoeie wat (i) 'n hoe ruvoer- en (ii) 'n hoe kragvoerdieet ontvang het. Die rumen pH, vlugtige vetsuur en rumen-ammoniakkonsentrasies, soos beinvloed deur tyd na voeding, is ook tussen rasse vergelyk. Die rumendegradeerbaarheid van vars, oondgedroogde en vriesgedroogde hawerkuilvoer is ook bepaal. Die rumen DM, RP en NDF degradeerbaarhede van lusemhooi was hoer (P<O.05) as by hawerhooi en hawerkuilvoer in beide Holstein en Jerseykoeie wat (i) 'n hoe ruvoer- en (ii) 'n hoe kragvoerdieet ontvang het. Op 'n hoe ruvoerdieet, was effektiewe DM degradeerbaarheid van hawerkuilvoer by Holsteins hoer (P<O.05) as by Jerseys. Jerseykoeie het egter 'n hoer (P<O.05) RP degradeerbaarheidstempo van lusemhooi en hawerhooi gehad. Jerseykoeie op 'n hoe kragvoerdieet, het hoer (P<O.05) effektiewe DM en NDF degradeerbaarhede getoon. Hulle het egter 'n laer (P<O.05) effektiewe ruprotein (RP) degradeerbaarheid by hawerkuilvoer as Friese gehad. Jerseykoeie op lusemhooi het ook 'n hoer (P<O.05) DM en NDF degradeerbaarheidstempo getoon. Jerseykoeie wat 'n hoe ruvoerdieet ontvang het, het 'n hoer (P<O.05) rumen- pH en laer (P<O.05) vlugtige vetsuur- en rumen-ammoniak konsentrasies as Holsteinkoeie gehad. Jerseykoeie wat 'n hoe kragvoerdieet ontvang het, het ook 'n hoer (P<O.05) rumen- pH as Holsteinkoeie gehad. By al die koeie is gevind dat rumen- pH na voeding afgeneem het (P<O.05). Vlugtige vetsuur- en rumen-ammoniakkonsentrasies was laag voor voeding en het daama toegeneem (P<O.05). Vars hawerkuilvoer het laer (P<O.05) effektiewe DM, RP en NDF degradeerbaarhede en degradeerbaarheidstempo's as oond- en vriesgedroogde hawerkuilvoer gehad. Die vriesgedroogde kuilvoer het hoer (P<O.05) DM, RP en NDF degradeerbaarheidstempo's sowel as effektiewe NDF degradeerbaarhede gehad. Oondgedroogde kuilvoer het daarinteen hoer (P<O.05) effektiewe DM en RP degradeerbaarhede gehad. Die gevolgtrekking is gemaak dat lakterende Jerseykoeie ten minste 2kg lusemhooi of 4- 6kg hawerhooi per dag moet ontvang wanneer hulle hawerkuilvoer as ruvoerbron ontvang. Op 'n hoe kragvoerdieet, het dit gebleik dat die rumendegradeerbaarheid van vesel by Jerseys beter is as by Holsteins. Die rumen- pH is hoog voor voeding, maar dit neem af nadat die koeie gevreet het. Die rumen- pH van Jerseys was hoer as by Holsteins. Die vlugtige vetsure en rumen-ammoniakkonsentrasies blyk laag te wees voor voeding en neem daama toe. Konsentrasies was hoer by Holstein as by Jerseys.

Thesis (PhD(Agric) (Agricultural Economics))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation is an analysis of dairy production in the Midlands district of KwaZulu-Natal. The analysis of agricultural production generally ignores undesirable outputs that are produced alongside desirable outputs. This research attempted to integrate a model of nitrate leaching from dairy production into a multiple input/output representation of the production technology, together with the analysis of technical efficiency. Estimation of both technical efficiency and environmental efficiency were done following the parametric econometric stochastic frontier (SFA) and the nonparametric mathematical programming data envelopment analysis (DEA) approaches. The study used unbalanced panel data from 37 individual highly specialized dairy farms for the period 2000 to 2007 and totals to 2130 observations. Production functions for the three outputs; milk, animals and farm produced feed, were fitted as a simultaneous system to model the farms’ production activities for the econometric SFA estimation of technical efficiency. A single equation reduced form was fitted as a frontier to allow for the estimation of the relative efficiencies of the individual farms. The results showed that with data this detailed it was possible to refine the model until it fits very tightly. Indeed, in the gross output model that includes cows, there was nothing left to call inefficiency and what was clearly a frontier becomes a mean response function. Technical efficiency was further calculated using the nonparametric DEA approach using the same dataset. The estimation of environmental efficiency was done using both SFA and DEA approaches. Undesirable emissions of nitrate were represented within the models by calculating nitrogen surplus (kg/ha) for each farm. This nitrogen surplus value was based on the intensity of the use of nitrogen containing inputs and the nitrogen content of marketable products specific information and from farm data which were used to calculate a farm nitrogen balance. The stochastic estimation of environmental efficiency used the same data that were used for the estimation of technical efficiency. However, for the DEA calculation of environmental efficiency, a balanced cross-section dataset for 34 farms participating in a pasture-utilization programme was used. This dataset was used because it had quantities of nitrogen fertilizer and other nitrogen containing inputs. Results indicate that there was minimal “over-usage” (over production) of milk thus reducing milk output alone will not lead to improved environmental efficiency. Farm size, herd size, and quantity of nitrogen fertilizer applied, present the best scope of reducing nitrogen surplus thus improving environmental efficiency of the dairy farms. Reducing imported feed by relying more on home grown feed can also help reduce nitrogen surplus. This is feasible because dairy farmers in the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands can produce most of the feed on farm. In summary, to obtain environmental efficiency milk production would have to be reduced by 80 litres per hectare; farm size by 73.69 ha; herd size by 33 cows, nitrogen fertilizer application by 74.3 kilograms per hectare; and imported feed by 13.4 kilograms of dry matter per hectare. The adjustments that would be required if environmentally inefficient farms were to adopt best practice technology and move towards their environmental production frontiers indicate that the production of pollutants (nitrogen surplus) could be reduced at negligible cost to milk production. The positive correlation between technical and environmental efficiencies indicates that improving environmental efficiency could be associated with improvements in technical efficiency. Thus, policies aimed at improving both efficiencies could have substantial rewards. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie tesis word suiwelproduksie in die Middellande van KwaZulu-Natal van nader beskou. Met die ontleding van landbouproduksie, word ongewenste uitsette wat saam met gewenste uitsette geproduseer word, gewoonlik oor die hoof gesien. Hierdie navorsing poog om ’n model van nitraatvrylating uit suiwelproduksie in ’n veelvuldige inset/uitset verteenwoordiging van die produksietegnologie, te integreer by die analise van tegniese doeltreffendheid. In opvolging van die benaderings tot die parametriese ekonometriese stogastiese front (SFA) en die omvattingsanalise ten opsigte van die nie-parametriese matematiese programmeringsdata, is beramings van sowel tegniese as omgewings doeltreffendheid gedoen. In die studie is gebruik gemaak van paneeldata van 37 individuele hoogs gespesialiseerde melkplase vir die tydperk 2000 tot 2007, wat altesaam 2130 waarnemings beloop. Produksiewerksaamhede vir die drie uitsette; melkproduksie en diere- en plaasgeproduseerde voer, is as ’n gelyklopende stelsel ingepas om die plase se produksiewerksaamhede vir die ekonometriese SFA-beramings van tegniese doeltreffendheid weer te gee. ’n Enkele vorm om gelykmaking te verminder is daargestel as ’n front vir die beraming van die relatiewe doeltreffendhede van die individuele plase. Die resultate het bewys dat data van hierdie omvang dit moontlik maak om die model sodanig te verfyn dat dit net-net inpas. By die bruto uitset-model waarby koeie ingesluit is, was daar inderdaad niks wat op ondoeltreffendheid gedui het nie en wat eers ’n duidelike front was, het ’n betekenisvolle responsfunksie geword. Voorts is tegniese doeltreffendheid bereken deur aanwending van die nie-parametriese DEAbenadering, deur gebruik te maak van dieselfde datastel. Die beraming van omgewingsdoeltreffendheid is gedoen deur gebruikmaking van sowel SFA- as DEA-benaderings. Ongewenste nitraatvrylatings is in die modelle gevind deur die stikstofsurplus vir elke plaas te bereken (kg/ha) Die waarde van hierdie stikstofsurplus is gebaseer op die intensiteit van die gebruik van stikstofbevattende insette en bepaalde inligting oor die stikstof-inhoud van bemarkbare produkte, sowel as van plaas data, wat gebruik is om ’n stikstofbalans vir die plaas te bereken. Dieselfde data wat aangewend is vir die beraming van tegniese doeltreffendheid, is gebruik om die stogastiese beraming van omgewingsdoeltreffendheid te bepaal. Vir die DEA-berekening van omgewingsxii doeltreffendheid, is egter ’n gebalanseerde kruisseksie datastel gebruik vir 34 plase wat aan ’n weidingsbenuttings-program deelgeneem het. Die bepaalde datastel is gebruik omdat dit dosisse stikstofbemestingstof en ander stikstofbevattende insette bevat het. Resultate het op minimale “oorgebruik” (oorproduksie) van melk gedui en daarom sal die vermindering van slegs die melkuitset nie lei tot verbeterde omgewingsdoeltreffendheid nie. Plaasgrootte, kuddegrootte en die dosis stikstof wat toegedien is, verskaf die beste beeld van verminderde stikstofsurplus, wat dus tot verbeterde omgewingsdoeltreffendheid op melkplase lei. Die vermindering van ingevoerde voer deur meer op plaasgeproduseerde voer staat te maak, kan ook meewerk om stikstofsurplus te laat daal. Dit kan gedoen word omdat melkboere in die Middellande van KwaZulu-Natal die meeste van die voer op die plaas kan produseer. Ter samevatting kan gesê word dat om omgewingsdoeltreffendheid te bereik moet melkproduksie met 80 liter per hektaar verminder word, plaasgrootte met 73.69 ha, kuddegrootte met 33 koeie, stikstofbemestingtoediening met 74.3 kilogram per hektaar en ingevoerde voer met 13.4 kilogram droë materiaal per hektaar. Die aanpassings wat nodig sal wees indien omgewingsdoeltreffende plase beste praktyk-tegnologie sou aanvaar en sou aanbeweeg na hulle omgewingsproduksiefronte, dui daarop dat die produksie van besoedelende stowwe (stikstofsurplus) verminder kan word teen geringe koste aan melkproduksie. Die positiewe verband tussen tegniese en omgewingsdoeltreffendhede, dui daarop dat die verbetering van omgewingsdoeltreffendheid, in verband gebring kan word met verbeterings in tegniese doeltreffendheid. Beleid wat op verbetering van beide doeltreffendhede gemik is, kan daarom aanmerklike voordele inhou.

Tuberculosis (TB) is an ancient infectious disease that has been infecting different populations around the globe and it has also been considered as one of the most successful human and animal disease. TB found in animals such as cattle and other known bovids is known as bovine tuberculosis. Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is an infectious disease found in cattle mainly caused by Mycobacterium bovis. M. bovis is a member of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) together with M. tuberculosis, M. africanum, and M. canetti where the natural host is humans; whereas M. caprae, M. microti and M. pinnipedii usually have animals as their natural host. In this study the molecular characterization of the MTC from cow milk in the Eastern Cape was investigated. One hundred and twenty samples (40 ml each) were collected from three dairy farms in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. These samples were processed using a modified Petroff decontamination method. Sample processing was followed by DNA isolation using a Zymo Bacterial/Fungal DNA Kit and the amplification and detection of the MTC was done using the Seeplex MTB Nested ACE assay. The drug susceptibility tests were done using GenoTypeMTBDRplus assay which detects mutations and resistance to INH (isoniazid) and RMP (rifampicin). The milk isolates were further analyzed using a spoligotyping method which is based on the PCR amplification of a highly polymorphic direct repeat locus in the M. tuberculosis genome which detects and types the MTC. A percentage of 20.8 % samples were found to be positive for MTC using the Seeplex MTB Nested ACE assay. There were 42.1 % samples that were resistant to both INH and RMP with the rest sensitive to either INH or RMP. The spoligotyping method showed that 78.3 % samples resembled Family 33 strains and the rest (21.7 %) resembled a spoligotyping signature known to be that of M.africanum. Both these strains belong to the Ancestral lineage with Indo-Oceanic and West Africa 2 lineage. The outcomes of our study showed that molecular methods for detection of MTC can be applied directly on milk samples without the need for culturing.

MSCAGR (Animal Science) / Department of Animal Science / Milkability, or ease of milking, is the rate at which milk can be completely drawn from a cow’s udder. It is an important functional trait with regard to milking costs as well as udder health. Milkability traits have not been included in the breeding objectives of South African dairy cattle and their genetic parameters in the population have not been estimated. The primary objective of the study was to estimate genetic parameters for milkability traits in South African Holstein cattle. Data consisted of production and milkability records of 1 532 Holstein cows, from 6 herds, participating in the South African National Dairy Animal Recording and Improvement Scheme during the period 2015 to 2016 . Measures of milkability were average milk flow (AMF), maximum milk flow (MMF) and milking time (MT). Genetic parameters were estimated by a multi-trait sire model using the Restricted Maximum Likelihood (REML) procedure. Means for AMF, MMF and MT were 1.99 kg/min, 3.02 kg/min and 5.50 min, respectively. Non-genetic factors affecting variation in milkability traits were herd-year-season of calving, parity and milk yield. Heritability estimates for AMF, MMF, and MT were 0.23±0.09, h2 = 0.41±0.12 and h2 = 0.36±0.11, respectively. Genetic correlations between the three milkability traits were medium to high, ranging from -0.35±0.23 between AMF and MT to 0.79±0.09 between AMF and MMF. Correlations were positive between AMF and MMF and negative between MT and the other two traits. There was an increase in the mean EBV for AMF of 0.002 kg/min (0.0001 kg/min per year) during the period 2002 to 2014. Maximum milk flow also showed an increasing genetic trend of 0.04 kg/min (0.0003 kg/min per year) over the same period. The genetic trend for MT was undesirable, as it increased by 0.0003 kg/min. There is scope for improving milkability through selection, in South African Holstein cattle, as indicated by the moderate to high heritability estimates. The favourable genetic correlations among milkability traits imply that selection on one trait will result in a correlated improvement in the others. Results of the current study provide a basis for including milkability traits in the breeding objective for South African Holstein cattle.

Thesis (M. Tech.) -- Central University of Technology, Free State, 2008 / Local government (LG) is under increasing pressure from the milk industry and consumers regarding their ability and willingness to carry out their mandate with regard to the quality control of milk, especially in the informal sector. The government and the milk industry currently have programmes underway to stimulate economic activities in the informal sector, targeting emerging cattle farmers for the production of milk as part of government’s Accelerated Shared Growth Initiative of South Africa (ASGISA). These initiatives further increase the number of informal milk producers and distributors, which holds a further challenge to regulatory authorities. At the same time, the quality of milk from the informal milk-producing sector poses a serious public health concern. Most of the milk produced and sold by the informal sector is raw (unpasteurised), which does not meet the minimum statutory requirements, and the milking practices applied by the informal sector also do not comply with best practice compliance standards. Local authorities (LAs) are statutorily responsible for registering milking parlours and controlling milk hygiene quality from production stage to purchase stage in order to ensure safe and wholesome dairy products to the consumer. Therefore, LG should play an increasingly important role in ensuring that safe and wholesome milk is produced and distributed to the consumers. All metropolitan municipalities (metros) and district municipalities (DMs) should be authorised by the Ministry of Health to enforce the Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act, 1972 (Act 54 of 1972) through their authorised officials – mainly environmental health practitioners (EHPs). Secondly, LG should have specific programmes, systems and resources to register, monitor, evaluate and control milk production and distribution outlets for continued compliance

College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Agriculture)