Thesis M.Sc.(Agricultural Economics) --University of Limpopo, 2015 / Livestock production particularly cattle production is a major component of Southern African rural agriculture with a population of some 14.1 million cattle. Cattle occupy a unique role in human livelihoods and they are raised for meat, milk, and as draft animals for pulling carts and plows. Cattle farmers in communal areas are rational in the ways in which they use and manage their herds, and economic benefits are contributory drivers of their behaviour. The title of the study was the determinants of cattle ownership and herd size in Vhembe District of Limpopo Province, South Africa. The study had two objectives; firstly, to determine the socio-economic factors affecting the household decision to keep cattle and secondly, to analyse the determinants of herd size in livestock keeping households. The study was conducted in Mutale Local Municipality located in Vhembe District of Limpopo Province in South Africa. The study employed a sample of 185 small scale farmers from five villages covering about 5% of each village’s population. The statistical programme used to analyse the data was STATA 2010. For empirical analysis, the study used three analytical techniques namely: the logistic regression model, the OLS model and the Heckman selection model. Empirical results revealed that nine variables were significant in determining the probability of a household to own cattle namely; gender of household head, marital status of household head, age of the household head, household total size, benefits from livestock, previous cattle ownership in the family, homestead category, other income source and also the land area . Most of the variables that explained the decision of a household to keep cattle were also associated with explaining the decision of a household to keep a given number of cattle. Based on the findings of this study, several policy recommendations were proposed, namely; encouragement of youth participation in agriculture, promotion of gender equality and improvement of women’s consideration in decision-making processes in agricultural production, provision and conservation of agricultural grazing land and livestock infrastructural development. Additional policy recommendations were; intensification of the cattle input support schemes (feed, water and disease control), incentives for cattle farmers to consider farming as a business than just a cultural norm, provision of job opportunities in homelands and provision of livestock production institutions.

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to provide scientifically founded guidelines to enhance the understanding of beef production from natural pastures in arid sweet veld regions. Cattle from four breed types ranging from large to small frame sizes (Simmentaler cross > Bonsmara cross > Afrikaner > Nguni) were compared in terms of cow production and efficiency as well as the growth performance, carcass and meat quality of steers slaughtered at 18, 24 and 30 months of age. Eighteen and 30 month old steers were slaughtered at the end of the wet summer season, while the 24 month old steers were slaughtered at the end of the dry winter season. The Afrikaner herd (59.8 ± 9.0 %) had lower (p < 0.05) pregnancy rates than the Simmentaler cross (79.3 ± 12.2 %), Bonsmara cross (76.5 ± 11.1 %) and Nguni herds (86.1 ± 5.8 %). Breed differences (p < 0.05) for weaning weight and preweaning gain were observed (Simmentaler cross > Bonsmara cross > Afrikaner > Nguni). The Nguni cow herd (46.5 ± 5.7 kg/100 kg mated) was more (p < 0.05) efficient than the Simmentaler cross (36.2 ± 5.5 kg/100 kg mated), Bonsmara cross (37.7 kg/100 kg mated) and Afrikaner herds (29.5 ± 5.9 kg/100 kg mated). During the dry winter season steers gained 23.4 ± 1.5 kg from 7 to 12 months of age and from 18 to 24 months of age they gained 20.9 ± 2.0 kg. During the wet summer season steers gained 109.7 ± 1.8 kg from 12 to 18 months and 120.3 ± 4.1 kg from 24 to 30 months of age. The best (p > 0.05) fat classification codes were attained at 30 months of age and the worst (p < 0.05) at 24 months of age. Simmentaler cross steers attained the lowest (p < 0.05) fat classification at all three age classes. At 30 months of age, 15 of the 63 steers slaughtered had 3 or 4 permanent incisors, while 47 steers had 2 permanent incisors. The total amount as well as the percentage kidney and omental fat were the highest (p < 0.05) at 30 months of age and the lowest (p < 0.05) at 24 months. Back fat thickness followed the same pattern. Although breed differences for some meat quality parameters were observed, slaughter age had a much more pronounced effect on meat quality parameters. The percentage cooking loss was the lowest (p < 0.05) at 30 months of age. The meat was also darker (p > 0.05) and more red (p < 0.05) at 30 months than at 18 or 24 months of age. The pH24 was higher (p < 0.05) at 24 (5.68 ± 0.05) and 30 months (5.65 ± 0.03) than at 18 months of age (5.48 ± 0.04). A trained sensory panel only detected that Longissimus muscle samples from 18 month old steers were more tender (p < 0.05) than that from 30 month old steers. Similar results were found for Warner-Bratzler shear force values. Marketing steers at 30 months of age resulted in higher production outputs for all the breed types than marketing weaners. For marketing both weaners and 30 month old steers the Nguni herd produced more marketable kilograms live weight than the Simmentaler cross, the Bonsmara cross and the Afrikaner herds. Different marketing systems suitable to the Arid Sweet Bushveld were identified. Each marketing system is discussed in terms of its application, advantages, disadvantages and adaptability to arid regions. It is maintained throughout that a conservative approach to grazing as well as cattle management is critical to ensure stable production systems in arid regions with erratic rainfall patterns. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die oogmerk van hierdie studie is om wetenskaplik gefundeerde riglyne daar te stel wat die begrip van beesvleis produksie vanaf natuurlike weidings in ariede soetveld streke sal verbeter. Beeste van vier ras tipes wat wissel van groot- tot kleinraam tipes (Simmentaler kruis > Bonsmara kruis > Afrikaner > Nguni) is vergelyk in terme van koeiproduksie en effektiwiteit sowel as die groei prestasie, karkas- en vleiskwaliteit van osse op 18-, 24- en 30-maande ouderdom. Osse wat op 18 en 30 maande ouderdom geslag is, is aan die einde van die nat somerseisoen geslag, terwyl osse wat op 24 maande ouderdom geslag is, aan die einde van die droë winterseisoen geslag is. Die Afrikaner kudde (59.8 ± 9.0 %) het ’n laer (p < 0.05) reproduksietempo as die Simmentaler kruis (79.3 ± 12.2 %), Bonsmara kruis (76.5 ± 11.1 %) en die Nguni kuddes (86.1 ± 5.8 %) gehandhaaf. Ras verskille (p < 0.05) ten opsigte van speenmassas en voorspeense groeitempo’s is waargeneem (Simmentaler kruise > Bonsmara kruise > Afrikaners > Ngunis). Die Nguni koei kudde (46.5 ± 5.7 kg/100 kg gedek) was meer (p < 0.05) effektief as die Simmentalerkruis (36.2 ± 5.5 kg/100 kg gedek), Bonsmarakruis (37.7 kg/100 kg gedek) en die Afrikaner kuddes (29.5 ± 5.9 kg/100 kg gedek). Gedurende die droëwinter seisoen het die osse vanaf 7 to 12 maande ouderdom 23.4 ± 1.5 kg in liggaamsmassa toegeneem en vanaf 18 tot 24 maande ouderdom het hulle 20.9 ± 2.0 kg toegeneem. Gedurende die nat somerseisoen het die osse vanaf 12 tot 18 maande ouderdom 109.7 ± 1.8 kg in liggaamsmassa toegeneem en van 24 tot 30 maande ouderdom het hulle 120.3 ± 4.1 kg toegeneem. Die beste (p < 0.05) vetklassifikasie kodes is op 30 maande ouderdom verkry en die swakste (p < 0.05) op 24 maande ouderdom. Simmentalerkruisosse het by alle ouderdomsgroepe die swakste (P < 0.05) vetklassifikasie kodes behaal. Op 30 maande ouderdom het 15 van die 63 osse wat geslag is 3 of 4 permanente snytande gehad, terwyl 47 osse 2 permanente snytande gehad het. Die totale hoeveelheid sowel as die persentasie nier- en omentumvet was die hoogste (p < 0.05) op 30 maande ouderdom en die laagste (p < 0.05) op 24 maande ouderdom. Rugvetdikte het dieselfde patroon gevolg. Alhoewel rasverskille vir sommige vleiskwaliteitsparameters waargeneem is, het slagouderdom’n groter effek hierop. Die persentasie kookverlies was die laagste (p < 0.05) op 30 maande ouderdom. Die vleis was ook donkerder (p < 0.05) en meer rooi (p < 0.05) op 30 maande ouderdom as op 18 en 24 maande ouderdom. Die pH24 was hoër (p < 0.05) op 24 (5.68 ± 0.05) en 30 maande ouderdom (5.65 ± 0.03) as op 18 maande ouderdom (5.48 ± 0.04). Behalwe vir sagtheid, is geen ander ras- of slagouderdomsverskille in die longissimus spiermonsters vir enige van die sensoriese eienskappe wat geëvalueer is, waargeneem nie. ’n Opgeleide sensoriese paneel het slegs waargeneem dat die longissimus spiermonsters van 18 maand oue osse sagter (p < 0.05) was as dié van 30 maand oue osse. Soortgelyke resulte is vir die Warner-Bratzler snyweerstand gevind. Die bemarking van 30 maand oud osse het hoër produksie uitsette vir al die ras tipes opgelewer as die bemarking van speenkalwers. Met die bemarking van beide speenkalf en 30 maand oue osse, het die Ngunikudde meer bemarkbare kilogram lewendige massa as die Simmentalerkruis, die Bonsmarakruis en die Afrikaner kuddes geproduseer. Verskillende bemarkingstelsels wat as geskik vir die Ariede Soet Bosveld beskou word, is geïdentifiseer. Elke bemarking stelsel is in terme van sy toepassing, voor- en nadele asook die toepaslikheid daarvan in ariede streke bespreek. Dit word deurgaans aanbeveel dat ’n konserwatiewe benadering tot beide weidings- en kuddebestuur, krities is om stabiele produksiestelsels in ariede streke met wisselvalige reënvalpatrone te verseker.

project. It did this by reviewing relevant literature in development communication. The review done showed that literature is replete with arguments critical of the dominant paradigm due to its top-down nature of communication. Scholars critical of dominant paradigm argue that participatory communication should be given a prominent role to ensure that stakeholders work in concert to realise the stated objectives of their development project. The study highlighted many contentious issues surrounding the nature and practices of participatory communication. It pointed out that the issues have played themselves out in literature in the form of different typologies of participatory practices, which were dealt with extensively in this study. The discussion of participatory communication in literature is also mindful of different models of communication and the space they occupy in participatory communication practices. In this study, there was a discussion of transactional communication models as depicted by Nair and White (1993:52) and Steinberg (1997:19). Both scholars emphasise that participatory communication will not achieve its stated purpose without mutual agreement of the parties in communication. They equally stress the recognition of the possible effects of some contextual factors which may have bearing on the prevailing nature of communication. A review of different communication tools used by participatory development communicator was given in the study. These different communication tools were discussed in view of how these tools can be used to advance participatory practice in a development project, especially with reference to the project examined in this study. Using qualitative research method, different and appropriate interview methods such as semi-structured, focus group and post-survey interviews were used to collect data from the respondents in this study. The analysis and discussion of the data revealed that different challenges on the ground could affect participatory communication practices in a development project. With regard to the project examined in this study, the analysis showed that there is a weak stakeholder relationship, especially stakeholders identified in this study as field officers. The study highlighted that stakeholders such as the agricultural extension officers and animal health technicians are not very active in the implementation process of the project. Some of the reasons pointed out is the fact that the secondary stakeholder such as the Provincial Department of Agricultural (PDoA) to which these field officers belong is not playing active role in ensuring that they complement the efforts of other field officers such as the IDC representatives. The second reason is the fact that the participatory focus of the project was not properly communicated to the beneficiaries. This also transpired in their inability to reflect participatory practice in their relationship with the beneficiaries and other stakeholders of the project. Other challenges, among others, as pointed out in the analysis showed that participatory communication practice requires expert personnel to be successful. In the case of the project examined, apart from the fact that there is shortage of manpower to handle the challenges mentioned in the study, there is no communication expert among the few active personnel in the field. The findings of this study showed that there was no clear role and identification of responsibilities let alone coordination of all actors involved in the project. Through the selected case study, this study has not only provided avenue to explore both theoretically and practically participatory communication, but has added to participatory communication discourse that there is no easy answer to challenges field officers encounter in practice. This is the reason the different participatory practices characterising nature of the project this study has investigated was given.

MSCAGR (Animal Science) / Department of Animal Science / Milkability, or ease of milking, is the rate at which milk can be completely drawn from a cow’s udder. It is an important functional trait with regard to milking costs as well as udder health. Milkability traits have not been included in the breeding objectives of South African dairy cattle and their genetic parameters in the population have not been estimated. The primary objective of the study was to estimate genetic parameters for milkability traits in South African Holstein cattle. Data consisted of production and milkability records of 1 532 Holstein cows, from 6 herds, participating in the South African National Dairy Animal Recording and Improvement Scheme during the period 2015 to 2016 . Measures of milkability were average milk flow (AMF), maximum milk flow (MMF) and milking time (MT). Genetic parameters were estimated by a multi-trait sire model using the Restricted Maximum Likelihood (REML) procedure. Means for AMF, MMF and MT were 1.99 kg/min, 3.02 kg/min and 5.50 min, respectively. Non-genetic factors affecting variation in milkability traits were herd-year-season of calving, parity and milk yield. Heritability estimates for AMF, MMF, and MT were 0.23±0.09, h2 = 0.41±0.12 and h2 = 0.36±0.11, respectively. Genetic correlations between the three milkability traits were medium to high, ranging from -0.35±0.23 between AMF and MT to 0.79±0.09 between AMF and MMF. Correlations were positive between AMF and MMF and negative between MT and the other two traits. There was an increase in the mean EBV for AMF of 0.002 kg/min (0.0001 kg/min per year) during the period 2002 to 2014. Maximum milk flow also showed an increasing genetic trend of 0.04 kg/min (0.0003 kg/min per year) over the same period. The genetic trend for MT was undesirable, as it increased by 0.0003 kg/min. There is scope for improving milkability through selection, in South African Holstein cattle, as indicated by the moderate to high heritability estimates. The favourable genetic correlations among milkability traits imply that selection on one trait will result in a correlated improvement in the others. Results of the current study provide a basis for including milkability traits in the breeding objective for South African Holstein cattle.

In the Xhosa culture, Nguni cattle have always been valued due to cultural rituals purpose but were not viewed from a development perspective. In fact, traditionally, in Xhosa society, cattle were used not only as primary sources of food such as milk, meat and other related secondary products, but in the performance of rituals. From milk one can get sour milk (amasi) which is a staple diet for both young ones and adults. Furthermore, butter, which was traditionally used for cosmetics purposes, is also derived from milk. Thus, the focus of this study is on the paradigm shift, as well as the role played by cattle in Xhosa cultural rituals and agriculture.

Dairy farming is one of the most important agricultural industries in South Africa, and thus improving the performance of dairy cows, with respect to economically important dairy traits, would be beneficial. Selection of dairy cows has traditionally been phenotypic, but new molecular techniques have made it possible to evaluate phenotypic dairy traits at the DNA level, providing the possibility of more accurate selection. The economically important dairy traits, milk production and reproductive performance, are quantitative traits, and are therefore controlled by many genes and the environment. A number of genes have been identified that have been shown to influence economically important dairy traits, including the lep gene. This gene encodes the hormone leptin, which has been proven to regulate feed intake, energy balance, fertility and immune function. A polymorphism has been identified in the lep gene, which may be associated with economically important dairy traits. This study on a South African Jersey herd investigated the possible association of the polymorphism, RFLP-Kpn 21, with milk production and reproductive performance. The lactation records of fifty Jersey cows that completed their first lactation between 1997 and 2004 were collected, and these cows were genotyped for the RFLP-Kpn 21 polymorphism, located at exon 2 of the lep gene. This involved the extraction of DNA from venous blood, using a salting out technique. The extracted DNA was amplified using PCR primers; the reverse primer included a purposeful mismatch. The role of the purposeful mismatch was to create a recognition site for a restriction enzyme (Kpn 21), thus allowing the alleles of the polymorphism to be identified through a restriction digestion protocol. Two alleles were identified, the C- and the Tallele. The genotype of each cow was identified using PAGE. The significance of the genotype effects on the milk production traits and the reproductive performance traits were estimated using the F-statistic provided by a GLM Univariate analysis. In conclusion, no significant effect of the RFLP-Kpn 21 polymorphism was found for milk yield, butterfat and protein percentage, ICP and SPC (p > 0.05), but a possible association with lactose percentage was suggested by the statistical analysis (p < 0.05). Further investigation of South African Jersey cows will be necessary in order for conclusive results to be obtained. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

Leptin, a 16 (kilo Dalton) kDa hormone secreted predominantly by white adipocytes, regulates reproduction, energy intake and expenditure, and is involved in immune system function. Previous studies have identified associations between polymorphism E2FB in the leptin gene (lep) of cattle and milk quality and quantity, feed intake, and fat deposition in dairy and beef cattle though further studies have shown inconclusive results. Furthermore, indigenous South African cattle have not been involved in lep investigations or the applicability of the marker in South African beef grading systems. An investigation was conducted into the association of an SNP of a cytosine (C) to thymine (T) SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) mutation in exon 2 of the bovine lep (leptin) gene with weight gain, body condition, carcass fat content and quality in a population of indigenous Nguni cattle (n = 70) as well as a population of exotic British Hereford cattle (n = 54). The Hereford population had higher T-allele frequencies and a lower P-value (P = 0.172) for the E2FB genotypes than the Nguni population (P = 0.958). The resulting E2FB lep genotypes CC, CT and TT did not show an association with the pre- and post-slaughter traits initial live weight (ILW), body condition score (BCS), slaughter live weight (SLW), carcass fat content (FAT), carcass conformation (CFN) or warm carcass mass (WCM) for either population though t-tests revealed an association with the CT genotype with increased ILW than TT and a significantly higher WG in the TT genotypes than the CT (P<0.05). Subsequently, differences in pre- and post-slaughter traits in both populations were largely attributable to breed differences. The Hereford population exhibited significantly higher WG, CFN, SLW, WCM and CCM (P<0.05) than the Nguni population. The Nguni displayed significantly higher ILW and BCS values when graded in terms of the commercial South African AAA feedlot system. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

The study was conducted in four rural communities of the Chief Albert Luthuli Municipality in the Mpumalanga Province of South Africa. The objective of the study was to determine the contribution of beef cattle farming to the income of communal households in Chief Luthuli Municipality. Data were analysed descriptively. Multiple regression analysis was used to identify the factors that affect the contribution of beef cattle to income in the study area. It was found that beef cattle farming in the communal areas studied were practiced equally by women (50%) and men (50%). Over 50.5% of respondents were over 51 years old and 9.5% of youth participated in beef cattle farming. The literacy rate among respondents in the study area was 55%, including Grade 11 or below, Grade 12 and post matric education. Approximately 48% of the respondents relied on pension income, while 28.5% reported that the main source of income in their households came from a combination of beef cattle production and pension. 60.5% of the respondents were found to have more than 20 years of beef cattle farming experience, while 36.5% have between one and twelve years’ experience. The majority of the respondents (80%) grazed their cattle on the mountainside, 14.5% said they used communal grazing and 5.5% grazed their animals in their backyard. It was also found that 50% of respondents maintained up to ten head of cattle and the other 50% had more than ten cattle in their herds. Of the households that sold their beef cattle, 77% earned R 10,000 or less per annum while 23% earned between R 11,000 and R 60,000 per annum. Beef cattle farming were therefore found to constitute 19% of household income in the communal areas in Chief Albert Luthuli Municipality. The independent variables which collectively have a statistically significant influence on the income from beef cattle production at 5% level of significance were: number of beef cattle (t = 16.8, P < 0.000) and age at mortality (t = -2.59, P< 0.010). The number of beef cattle has a positive and statistically significant effect and mortality age a negative effect. It was concluded that the 19% contribution to household income coming from beef cattle farming in the study area was to be expected in light of the fact more than half (50.5%) of the respondents were older than 51 years old and 48% of respondents relied on pensions as a source of income. The danger is that because beef cattle farming in the study area have been marginalised as an agricultural activity, the rural poor are decreasingly engaging in beef cattle production as a source of income. / Agriculture / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

A cross-sectional study was conducted from February 2011 to August 2012 to investigate the status and identify risk factors for Bovine Tuberculosis (BTB) and cattle Brucellosis. A total of 1277 cattle from 6 selected dairy farms were tested. The farms were purposively selected on suspected risk. Samples were analysed using Rose Bengal Test (RBPT) and Complement Fixation Test (CFT) for Brucellosis and Comparative Intradermal Tuberculin Test (CITT) for BTB. The results revealed the overall prevalence of 1.6% for Brucellosis and no BTB was found. Logistic regression analysis revealed that age of cattle, herd size and number of calves a cow has had significant association with Brucellosis with p-values 0.0071, 0.0490 and 0.000 respectively. The role of location (p>0.05), gender (p>0.05) and breed (p>0.05) in the occurrence of the disease was not statistically significant at α=0.05, although higher rates were obtained in females and Jersey breed. Questionnaires were also administered to 47 individuals a total of 12 females and 35 males. Most respondents were not aware about cattle brucellosis and cattle tuberculosis. Consumption of raw or unpasteurized milk still occurs with 74.75% of respondents revealed.

The objective of this study was to determine time budgets, blood urea content, total protein and body condition score as adaptive responses to seasonal dynamics by breeding Nguni cows and heifers reared on a sweetveld. Twenty four clinically healthy Nguni cows and heifers were selected for the study. The animals were grouped according to their parities namely: Parity 1 (n=5), Parity 2 (n=5), Parity 3-6 (old cows) (n=9) and in-calf heifers (n=5). Two separate experiments were conducted and running concurrently. In the first experiment time budgets (time spent walking, grazing, lying down, drinking water and browsing) of the cows and heifers were monitored for two consecutive days once a month, while in the second experiment blood samples were collected from the coccygeal vein once a month during weighing. Body condition scores were also determined during weighing times. Heifers maintained significantly (p0.05) of both blood urea nitrogen (BUN) (7.5±0.39 mmol/l) and TP (80.7±1.19 g/l) in November. All the animals had the least BUN levels in January (1.93±0.18 mmol/l) while the highest total protein (TP) (82.1±1.08 g/l) was recorded in February. All the animals showed distinct (p0.05) in most behavioural attributes in the cool-wet season. Heifers spent significantly (p0.05) body condition scores, amount of time spent browsing and drinking water. On the other hand, heifers (14.7±1.50%) and first parity cows (13.9±1.50%) traded-off most (p<0,05) of their time walking during the cool-dry season. Similarly heifers spent more time browsing (6.4±0.62%) forage plants (p<0.05) than all the cows during the cool-wet season. Grazing (r = 0.17) and standing (r = -0.18) were correlated (p<0.05) with all the behavioural attributes measured in this environment. It was concluded that seasonal dynamics in trade-off behaviour through time budgeting, maintenance of BUN and TP were necessary for the Nguni cows and heifers to maintain their body condition scores within a narrow range throughout the four seasons.