L’objectif de cette étude e est de comprendre le processus de déalliage de l’acier inoxydable austénitique 304L avec l’intention de transcrire ce raisonnement aux aciers duplex. Des essais ont été réalisés au sein d’une solution aqueuse désaérée d’hydroxyde de sodium à 50%, portés à une température de 80°C sous pression atmosphérique et à potentiel libre. - L’alliage 304L se dissout en formant une couche nanoporeuse riche en nickel métallique sur sa surface. - L’alliage 2202 se dissout et présente deux comportements différents : o la ferrite s’appauvrit en nickel o l’austénite se recouvre d’une couche nanoporeuse constituée de nickel métallique. o les deux phases ont des vitesses de dissolution distinctes, l’austénite se dissolvant plus rapidement que la ferrite. Les cinétiques de dissolution des deux alliages sont différentes : l’alliage 2202 présente une meilleure résistance à la corrosion que l’alliage 304L. Cependant l’austénite de l’alliage 2202 se comporte de manière identique à l’alliage 304L et présente les mêmes caractéristiques. La ferrite semble conférer à l’alliage duplex une protection contre la corrosion caustique au détriment de l’austénite.La mise en évidence de la couche du nickel métallique presque pur est confrontée avec des modèles existants de déalliage. Des expériences complémentaires ont prouvées la simultanéité des étapes de dissolution de l'alliage, de la redéposition des atomes de Ni et de leur réarrangement sur la surface. / The aim of this study is to understand the process of dealloying of austenitic stainless steel 304L with the intention to put this reasoning to the duplex steels. Tests were conducted in a deaerated aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide at 50%, heated to a temperature of 80°C at atmospheric pressure and free potential. • The alloy 304L is dissolved to form a nanoporous layer rich in nickel metal on its surface. • The alloy 2202 is dissolved and has two different behaviors: o Ferritic phase is depleted in nickel o Austenite is covered by a nanoporous layer consists of metallic nickelo The two phases have different dissolution rates: austenite dissolves faster than ferrite. Kinetic dissolution of two alloys is different: alloy 2202 has better corrosion resistance than alloy 304L. However, the behavior of the austenite of the alloy 2202 is identical to the alloy 304L and has the same characteristics. The ferrite appears to give the duplex alloy corrosion protection against caustic at the expense of austenite. The identification of the layer of almost pure metallic nickel is confronted with existing models of dealloying. Additional experiments proved the simultaneous steps of dissolution of the alloy, redeposition of Ni atoms and their rearrangement on the surface.

Foram preparados eletrocatalisadores PtSnCu/C (com diferentes razões atômicas Pt:Sn:Cu) e PtSn/C (50:50) com 20 % em massa de metais pelos métodos da redução por borohidreto (IRB) e redução por álcool (RA). Utilizou-se H2PtCl6.6H2O, SnCl2.2H2O e CuCl2.2H2O como fonte de metais, NaBH4 e etilenoglicol como agentes redutores, 2-propanol e etilenoglicol/água como solventes e carbono como suporte. Numa segunda etapa, estes eletrocatalisadores foram ativados pelos processos de dealloying químico (DQ), por tratamento com HNO3 e dealloying eletroquímico (DE), utilizando a técnica de eletrodo de camada fina porosa. Os materiais obtidos foram caracterizados por energia dispersiva de raios-X (EDX), difração de raios-X (DRX), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET), energia dispersiva de raios-X de varredura linear (EDX-VL) e voltametria cíclica (VC). Estudos eletroquímicos para a oxidação eletroquímica do etanol foram realizados por voltametria cíclica, cronoamperometria e células unitárias (conjunto eletrodos/membrana). Os efluentes anódicos provenientes dos testes em células unitárias foram analisados por cromatografia a gás de alta eficiência (CG). Os difratogramas de raios-X dos eletrocatalisadores sintetizados mostraram a típica estrutura cúbica de face centrada (CFC) de liga de platina e após tratamento por dealloying, observou-se que a estrutura (CFC) foi preservada. O tamanho de cristalito dos eletrocatalisadores como preparados variou na ordem de 2 nm a 3 nm e, após processos de dealloying, não foram observadas variações de tamanho significativas. Análises por EDX dos eletrocatalisadores como preparados mostraram similaridade entra a razão atômica Pt:Sn e Pt:Sn:Cu obtida e a nominal. Após dealloying químico e eletroquímico, observou-se variação nas razões atômicas Pt:Sn e Pt:Sn:Cu, indicando a remoção parcial de Cu e Sn. Contudo, o processo de dealloying químico mostrou-se mais eficiente para a remoção de Cu e o dealloying eletroquímico para a remoção de Sn. As análises por EDX-VL mostraram que os processos de dealloying foram efetivos na remoção dos átomos mais superficiais de Cu e/ou Sn da estrutura CFC da Pt. Os resultados obtidos por cronoamperometria e voltametria cíclica mostraram que os eletrocatalisadores com teores de Pt maiores ou iguais a 30 %, após dealloying químico e eletroquímico apresentaram melhora significativa na atividade eletrocatalítica para a oxidação eletroquímica do etanol no potencial de interesse (0,5 V). Os eletrocatalisadores que apresentaram maior eficiência para oxidação eletroquímica do etanol foram PtSn/C (50:50) IRB/DE > PtSnCu/C (50:40:10) RA/DE > PtSnCu/C (50:10:40) IRB/DQ. Foram testados em células unitárias alimentadas diretamente com etanol os eletrocatalisadores PtSn/C (50:50) IRB/DQ, PtSnCu/C (50:10:40) IRB/DQ, PtSnCu/C (50:40:10) RA/DQ e os eletrocatalisadores comerciais Pt/C BASF e PtSn/C (75:25) BASF. Os eletrocatalisadores apresentaram a seguinte ordem de desempenho: PtSn/C (50:50) IRB/DQ > PtSnCu/C (50:40:10) RA/DQ > PtSn/C (75:25) BASF > PtSnCu/C (50:10:40) IRB/DQ > Pt/C BASF. Análises por cromatografia gasosa dos efluentes anódicos desses eletrocatalisadores mostraram formação de ácido acético e acetaldeído como produtos principais. / PtSnCu/C (with different Pt:Sn:Cu atomic ratios) and PtSn/C (50:50) electrocatalysts were prepared by borohydride (BR) and alcohol-reduction (AR) processes using H2PtCl6.6H2O, SnCl2.2H2O and CuCl2.2H2O as metal sources, NaBH4 and ethylene glycol as reducing agents, 2-propanol and ethylene glycol/water as solvents and carbon black as support. In a further step, these electrocatalysts were activated by chemical (CD) and electrochemical (ED) dealloying processes through acid treatment and thin porous coating technique, respectively. These materials were characterized by energy dispersive X-ray, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, line scan energy dispersive X-ray and cyclic voltammetry. Electrochemical studies for ethanol electro-oxidation were performed by cyclic voltammetry, chronoamperometry and in single Direct Ethanol Fuel Cell using Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA). The anodic efluents were analised by gas chromatrography. The X-ray diffractograms of the as-synthesized electrocatalysts showed the typical face-centered cubic structure (FCC) of platinum and its alloys. After dealloying, the X-ray diffractograms showed that the Pt FCC structure was preserved. The crystallite sizes of the as-synthesized electrocatalysts were in the range of 2 nm to 3 nm and after dealloying there were no significant variations in sizes. The energy dispersive X-ray analysis of the as-synthesized electrocatalysts showed a Pt:Sn and Pt:Sn:Cu atomic ratios similar to the nominal values. After chemical and electrochemical dealloying of the electrocatalysts the ranged Pt:Sn and Pt:Sn:Cu atomic ratios showed that Cu and Sn atoms were removed. However, chemical dealloying process proved to be more efficient for removing Cu and electrochemical dealloying for removing Sn. The line scan energy dispersive X-ray analysis showed that acid and electrochemichel treatments were efficient to dealloying Cu and/or Sn superficial atoms of the FCC structure of Pt. The results obtained by cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry showed that electrocatalysts containing 30 at % or more of platinum, after chemical and electrochemical dealloying had significant improvement in electrocatalytic activity for ethanol electro-oxidation in the potential of interest. The electrocatalysts with higher efficiency for electrochemical oxidation of ethanol were PtSn/C (50:50) BR/ED > PtSnCu/C (50:40:10) AR/ED > PtSnCu/C (50:10:40) BR/CD. PtSn/C (50:50) BR/CD, PtSnCu/C (50:10:40) BR/CD, PtSnCu/C (50:40:10) AR/CD electrocatalysts and Pt/C BASF, PtSn/C (75:25) BASF commercial electrocatalysts were tested in single Direct Ethanol Fuel Cell. The results showed the following peformance for ethanol electro-oxidation: PtSn/C (50:50) BR/CD > PtSnCu/C (50:40:10) AR/CD > PtSnCu/C > PtSn/C (75:25) BASF > PtSnCu/C (50:10:40) BR/CD > Pt/C BASF.

Foram preparados eletrocatalisadores PtSnCu/C (com diferentes razões atômicas Pt:Sn:Cu) e PtSn/C (50:50) com 20 % em massa de metais pelos métodos da redução por borohidreto (IRB) e redução por álcool (RA). Utilizou-se H2PtCl6.6H2O, SnCl2.2H2O e CuCl2.2H2O como fonte de metais, NaBH4 e etilenoglicol como agentes redutores, 2-propanol e etilenoglicol/água como solventes e carbono como suporte. Numa segunda etapa, estes eletrocatalisadores foram ativados pelos processos de dealloying químico (DQ), por tratamento com HNO3 e dealloying eletroquímico (DE), utilizando a técnica de eletrodo de camada fina porosa. Os materiais obtidos foram caracterizados por energia dispersiva de raios-X (EDX), difração de raios-X (DRX), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET), energia dispersiva de raios-X de varredura linear (EDX-VL) e voltametria cíclica (VC). Estudos eletroquímicos para a oxidação eletroquímica do etanol foram realizados por voltametria cíclica, cronoamperometria e células unitárias (conjunto eletrodos/membrana). Os efluentes anódicos provenientes dos testes em células unitárias foram analisados por cromatografia a gás de alta eficiência (CG). Os difratogramas de raios-X dos eletrocatalisadores sintetizados mostraram a típica estrutura cúbica de face centrada (CFC) de liga de platina e após tratamento por dealloying, observou-se que a estrutura (CFC) foi preservada. O tamanho de cristalito dos eletrocatalisadores como preparados variou na ordem de 2 nm a 3 nm e, após processos de dealloying, não foram observadas variações de tamanho significativas. Análises por EDX dos eletrocatalisadores como preparados mostraram similaridade entra a razão atômica Pt:Sn e Pt:Sn:Cu obtida e a nominal. Após dealloying químico e eletroquímico, observou-se variação nas razões atômicas Pt:Sn e Pt:Sn:Cu, indicando a remoção parcial de Cu e Sn. Contudo, o processo de dealloying químico mostrou-se mais eficiente para a remoção de Cu e o dealloying eletroquímico para a remoção de Sn. As análises por EDX-VL mostraram que os processos de dealloying foram efetivos na remoção dos átomos mais superficiais de Cu e/ou Sn da estrutura CFC da Pt. Os resultados obtidos por cronoamperometria e voltametria cíclica mostraram que os eletrocatalisadores com teores de Pt maiores ou iguais a 30 %, após dealloying químico e eletroquímico apresentaram melhora significativa na atividade eletrocatalítica para a oxidação eletroquímica do etanol no potencial de interesse (0,5 V). Os eletrocatalisadores que apresentaram maior eficiência para oxidação eletroquímica do etanol foram PtSn/C (50:50) IRB/DE > PtSnCu/C (50:40:10) RA/DE > PtSnCu/C (50:10:40) IRB/DQ. Foram testados em células unitárias alimentadas diretamente com etanol os eletrocatalisadores PtSn/C (50:50) IRB/DQ, PtSnCu/C (50:10:40) IRB/DQ, PtSnCu/C (50:40:10) RA/DQ e os eletrocatalisadores comerciais Pt/C BASF e PtSn/C (75:25) BASF. Os eletrocatalisadores apresentaram a seguinte ordem de desempenho: PtSn/C (50:50) IRB/DQ > PtSnCu/C (50:40:10) RA/DQ > PtSn/C (75:25) BASF > PtSnCu/C (50:10:40) IRB/DQ > Pt/C BASF. Análises por cromatografia gasosa dos efluentes anódicos desses eletrocatalisadores mostraram formação de ácido acético e acetaldeído como produtos principais. / PtSnCu/C (with different Pt:Sn:Cu atomic ratios) and PtSn/C (50:50) electrocatalysts were prepared by borohydride (BR) and alcohol-reduction (AR) processes using H2PtCl6.6H2O, SnCl2.2H2O and CuCl2.2H2O as metal sources, NaBH4 and ethylene glycol as reducing agents, 2-propanol and ethylene glycol/water as solvents and carbon black as support. In a further step, these electrocatalysts were activated by chemical (CD) and electrochemical (ED) dealloying processes through acid treatment and thin porous coating technique, respectively. These materials were characterized by energy dispersive X-ray, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, line scan energy dispersive X-ray and cyclic voltammetry. Electrochemical studies for ethanol electro-oxidation were performed by cyclic voltammetry, chronoamperometry and in single Direct Ethanol Fuel Cell using Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA). The anodic efluents were analised by gas chromatrography. The X-ray diffractograms of the as-synthesized electrocatalysts showed the typical face-centered cubic structure (FCC) of platinum and its alloys. After dealloying, the X-ray diffractograms showed that the Pt FCC structure was preserved. The crystallite sizes of the as-synthesized electrocatalysts were in the range of 2 nm to 3 nm and after dealloying there were no significant variations in sizes. The energy dispersive X-ray analysis of the as-synthesized electrocatalysts showed a Pt:Sn and Pt:Sn:Cu atomic ratios similar to the nominal values. After chemical and electrochemical dealloying of the electrocatalysts the ranged Pt:Sn and Pt:Sn:Cu atomic ratios showed that Cu and Sn atoms were removed. However, chemical dealloying process proved to be more efficient for removing Cu and electrochemical dealloying for removing Sn. The line scan energy dispersive X-ray analysis showed that acid and electrochemichel treatments were efficient to dealloying Cu and/or Sn superficial atoms of the FCC structure of Pt. The results obtained by cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry showed that electrocatalysts containing 30 at % or more of platinum, after chemical and electrochemical dealloying had significant improvement in electrocatalytic activity for ethanol electro-oxidation in the potential of interest. The electrocatalysts with higher efficiency for electrochemical oxidation of ethanol were PtSn/C (50:50) BR/ED > PtSnCu/C (50:40:10) AR/ED > PtSnCu/C (50:10:40) BR/CD. PtSn/C (50:50) BR/CD, PtSnCu/C (50:10:40) BR/CD, PtSnCu/C (50:40:10) AR/CD electrocatalysts and Pt/C BASF, PtSn/C (75:25) BASF commercial electrocatalysts were tested in single Direct Ethanol Fuel Cell. The results showed the following peformance for ethanol electro-oxidation: PtSn/C (50:50) BR/CD > PtSnCu/C (50:40:10) AR/CD > PtSnCu/C > PtSn/C (75:25) BASF > PtSnCu/C (50:10:40) BR/CD > Pt/C BASF.

abstract: Gold-silver alloy nanoparticles (NPs) capped with adenosine 5'-triphosphate were synthesized by borohydride reduction of dilute aqueous metal precursors. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy showed the as-synthesized particles to be spherical with average diameters ~4 nm. Optical properties were measured by UV-Visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), and the formation of alloy NPs was verified across all gold:silver ratios by a linear shift in the plasmon band maxima against alloy composition. The molar absorptivities of the NPs decreased non-linearly with increasing gold content from 2.0 x 108 M-1 cm-1 (fÉmax = 404 nm) for pure silver to 4.1 x 107 M-1 cm-1 (fÉmax = 511 nm) for pure gold. The NPs were immobilized onto transparent indium-tin oxide composite electrodes using layer-by-layer (LbL) deposition with poly(diallyldimethylammonium) acting as a cationic binder. The UV-Vis absorbance of the LbL film was used to calculate the surface coverage of alloy NPs on the electrode. Typical preparations had average NP surface coverages of 2.8 x 10-13 mol NPs/cm2 (~5% of cubic closest packing) with saturated films reaching ~20% of ccp for single-layer preparations (1.0 ~ 10-12 mol NPs/cm2). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirmed the presence of alloy NPs in the LbL film and showed silver enrichment of the NP surfaces by ~9%. Irreversible oxidative dissolution (dealloying) of the less noble silver atoms from the NPs on LbL electrodes was performed by cyclic voltammetry (CV) in sulfuric acid. Alloy NPs with higher gold content required larger overpotentials for silver dealloying. Dealloying of the more-noble gold atoms from the alloy NPs was also achieved by CV in sodium chloride. The silver was oxidized first to cohesive silver chloride, and then gold dealloyed to soluble HAuCl4- at higher potentials. Silver oxidation was inhibited during the first oxidative scan, but subsequent cycles showed typical, reversible silver-to-silver chloride voltammetry. The potentials for both silver oxidation and gold dealloying also shifted to more oxidizing potentials with increasing gold content, and both processes converged for alloy NPs with >60% gold content. Charge-mediated electrochemistry of silver NPs immobilized in LbL films, using Fc(meOH) as the charge carrier, showed that 67% of the NPs were electrochemically inactive. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Chemistry 2014