The defects and fault tolerance study is essential in the QCA devices in order to know its characteristics. Knowing the characteristics, one can understand the flow of information in a QCA system with and without manufacturing and operational defects. The manufacturing defects could be at device level or cell level. At the device level, the cell could be rotated, displaced vertically or horizontally, the cell could be missing or the size of the cell could be different. At the cell level, there could be a missing dot, dot could be displaced from its position or the size of the dots could be different. The operational defects are due to its surrounding, such as temperature or stray charge. Each of these defects and fault tolerances can be studies in detail in order to find the optimum working conditions where the information can be safely transmitted to the appropriate locations in the device.The theoretical studies have shown that at absolute temperature and without any defect, the QCA devices are operational. But it is almost impossible to manufacture a perfect or defect free device, and also it is impractical to think about operating a system at absolute zero temperature environment.Therefore, it is important to investigate the fault tolerant properties with defects and higher temperatures to see how far the QCA device can operate safely. Many studies have been done to investigate the fault tolerant properties in QCA devices. However, these studies have not completely exhausted the study of defects and temperature effects. In this study, the dot displacement and missing dots with temperature effects are investigated for the basic QCA devices and a Full Adder. In order to study fault tolerant properties, the existing theoretical model and computer simulation programs have been expanded and used. The defect characteristics have been simulated using normal distribution. / Department of Physics and Astronomy

Les miroirs multicouches trouvent de nombreuses applications utilisant les rayons X produits par les synchrotrons et les lasers à électrons libres et doivent relever de nouveaux challenges apparus avec l'amélioration de ces sources de rayonnement. Pour étudier les causes des contrastes d'intensité produits dans le faisceau réfléchi, des mesures expérimentales et une modélisation numérique ont été effectuées.Plusieurs méthodes d’analyse de la structure des multicouches et du front d’onde réfléchi par un miroir multicouches ont été mises en œuvre sur la ligne de lumière BM05 de l'ESRF. Les méthodes de mesure de 'Rocking Curve Imaging' et 'theta/2theta Imaging' ont été appliquées et adaptées pour la première fois aux miroirs multicouches. Des mesures du front d'onde réfléchi par une multicouche ont aussi été effectuées à partir des techniques d’holographie et de tavelure en champ proche. Les résultats obtenus permettent de mieux comprendre les effets de phase produits par les multicouches ainsi que leurs origines et de reconstruire la topographie de défauts de hauteur d'un miroir multicouches par l'utilisation du modèle numérique développé durant cette thèse.Un modèle numérique basé sur les équations de Takagi-Taupin a été modifié pour tenir compte de défauts dans la structure multicouches d'un miroir. Des simulations de défauts simples ont été effectuées afin de caractériser les performances et les limites du modèle numérique. La propagation et la cohérence de faisceau réfléchi ont été simulées. Les résultats expérimentaux et simulés ont alors permis de montrer que les défauts de hauteur dans la structure multicouches des miroirs constituent la cause principale des contrastes d'intensité. Les simulations effectuées conduisent à conclure que les effets induits par les défauts de hauteur dans une multicouche sont analogues aux effets de phase produits par ces même défauts de hauteur sur une surface réfléchissante.Ces modèles et ces simulations peuvent être utiliser pour spécifier les caractéristiques des défaut de hauteur qui minimise la production du contraste d'intensité. Les techniques expérimentales développées permettront de caractériser avec les rayons X les futures multicouches. / Multilayer mirrors find numerous X-ray applications in synchrotron and X-rays free electron lasers. These multilayers optical devices must take up new challenges raised with the upgrade these radiation sources. To study the origin of intensity contrast in reflected beam, experimental measurements and numerical modeling were performed.Several techniques for multilayer structure charactérization have been implemented at the ESRF beamline BM05. Measurements methods based on 'Rocking Curve Imaging' and 'theta/2theta' Imaging were performed and applied for the first time to multilayer mirrors. Measurements of the wavefront reflected by multilayers were performed using holography and near field speckle techniques. The results obtained allowed a better understanding of the phase effects induced by multilayer reflection of their origin and to reconstruct the topography of the height defects within a multilayer mirror using the numerical model developped in the course of this PhD thesis.A numerical model based on Takagi-Taupin equations was modified to account for defects present in the multilayer mirror structure. Simulations for simple defects were performed to evaluate performance and limits of the numerical model. The propagation and the coherence of the reflected beam were simulated. The measurement and simulation results show the main influence of defect heights on the generation of the intensity contrast observed. The simulations also lead to conclude the equivalency phase effect resulting of the same height defects in multilayers mirror structure and reflecting surface.These modelization and simulations results can be usefull to specify defect feature which minimise reflected intensity contrast. The new developped experimental technics will allows X-rays caracterization for next multilayer mirrors.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / No presente trabalho, um algoritmo algébrico sequencial é utilizado para descrever a propagação de ondas acústicas ao longo de uma barra e utilizado na identificação de danos. Esse algoritmo é validado com base nos conficientes de sensibilidade dos ecos correspondentes aos diferentes cenários de danos apresentados. Na formulação do problema de identificação de dano, o campo de impedância generalizada, que minimiza o funcional definido como a distância entre o eco calculado e o eco experimental sintético é procurado. Os tempos de percurso da resposta, obtidos a partir de experimentos numéricos, são utilizados para identificar a posição, intensidade e forma do dano. Para simular dados corrompidos, diferentes níveis de ruído - variando de 30 a 0 dB - são introduzidos. O processo de identificação foi avaliado com os seguintes métodos de otimização: Otimização por Enxame de Partículas (PSO); Luus-Jaakola (LJ); Algoritmo de Colisão de Partículas (PCA); Algoritmos Genéticos (GA) e Recozimento Simulado (SA); e a hibridização desses métodos com o método determinístico de Levenberg-Marquardt. É mostrado que o processo de identificação de dano construído sobre a abordagem de propagação de ondas acústicas foi bem sucedido, mesmo para dados ruidosos altamente corrompidos. Os resultados dos casos testes são apresentados e algumas observações sobre as vantagens dos métodos determinísticos e estocásticos e sua combinação também são relatados. / In the present work, a sequential algorithm is used for describing the acoustic wave propagation along a bar and applied for damage identification purposes. The algorithm is validated based on the sensitivity coefficients of the corresponding echoes to the adressed damage scenarios. In the formulation of the damage identification problem, the generalized impedance field, that minimizes the functional defined as the distance between the calculated echo and the synthetic experimental one is sought. Time history responses, obtained from pulse-echo experiments, are used to identify damage position, severity and shape. In oder to account for noise corrupted data, different levels of signal to noise ratio - varying from 30 to 0 dB - are introduced. In the identification procedure the following optimization methods were applied: Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO); Luus-Jaakola (LJ); Particle Collision Algorithm (PCA); Genetic Algorithms (GA); and Simmulated Annealing (SA): and the hybridization of these methods with the deterministic Levenberg-Marquardt method. It is shown that the damage identification procedure built on the acoustic wave propagation approach was successful, even for highly corrupted noisy data. Test case results are presented and a few comments on the advantages of deterministic and stochastic methods and their combination are also reported.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / No presente trabalho, um algoritmo algébrico sequencial é utilizado para descrever a propagação de ondas acústicas ao longo de uma barra e utilizado na identificação de danos. Esse algoritmo é validado com base nos conficientes de sensibilidade dos ecos correspondentes aos diferentes cenários de danos apresentados. Na formulação do problema de identificação de dano, o campo de impedância generalizada, que minimiza o funcional definido como a distância entre o eco calculado e o eco experimental sintético é procurado. Os tempos de percurso da resposta, obtidos a partir de experimentos numéricos, são utilizados para identificar a posição, intensidade e forma do dano. Para simular dados corrompidos, diferentes níveis de ruído - variando de 30 a 0 dB - são introduzidos. O processo de identificação foi avaliado com os seguintes métodos de otimização: Otimização por Enxame de Partículas (PSO); Luus-Jaakola (LJ); Algoritmo de Colisão de Partículas (PCA); Algoritmos Genéticos (GA) e Recozimento Simulado (SA); e a hibridização desses métodos com o método determinístico de Levenberg-Marquardt. É mostrado que o processo de identificação de dano construído sobre a abordagem de propagação de ondas acústicas foi bem sucedido, mesmo para dados ruidosos altamente corrompidos. Os resultados dos casos testes são apresentados e algumas observações sobre as vantagens dos métodos determinísticos e estocásticos e sua combinação também são relatados. / In the present work, a sequential algorithm is used for describing the acoustic wave propagation along a bar and applied for damage identification purposes. The algorithm is validated based on the sensitivity coefficients of the corresponding echoes to the adressed damage scenarios. In the formulation of the damage identification problem, the generalized impedance field, that minimizes the functional defined as the distance between the calculated echo and the synthetic experimental one is sought. Time history responses, obtained from pulse-echo experiments, are used to identify damage position, severity and shape. In oder to account for noise corrupted data, different levels of signal to noise ratio - varying from 30 to 0 dB - are introduced. In the identification procedure the following optimization methods were applied: Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO); Luus-Jaakola (LJ); Particle Collision Algorithm (PCA); Genetic Algorithms (GA); and Simmulated Annealing (SA): and the hybridization of these methods with the deterministic Levenberg-Marquardt method. It is shown that the damage identification procedure built on the acoustic wave propagation approach was successful, even for highly corrupted noisy data. Test case results are presented and a few comments on the advantages of deterministic and stochastic methods and their combination are also reported.