Standard-Cell-library-based design ow is widely followed in the Application Specific Integrated Circuit(ASIC) industry. Most of the realistic cell libraries are geometrically spaced introducing significant sparseness in the library. This is because uniformly spaced gate sizes would result in a large number of gate sizes and maintaining the huge volume of data for this number of gate sizes is difficult. This thesis aims to propose a practical approach to implement integer gate sizes. A parameterized cell (p-cell) approach to the generation of layouts of standard gates is presented. The use of constant delay model for gate delay estimation is proposed which eliminates the need for maintaining huge volumes of delay tables in the standard cell library. This approach has tremendous potential since it greatly simplifies the standard-cell-based design methodology and can give significant power and area savings.Power and area savings of up to 28% are possible using this approach.

Data aggregation is an important technique in wireless sensor networks. The data are gathered together by data fusion routines along the routing path, which is called data-centralized routing. We propose a localized, Delay-bounded and Energy-efficient Data Aggregation framework(DEDA) based on the novel concept of DEsired Progress (DEP). This framework works under request-driven networks with realistic MAC layer protocols. It is based on localized minimal spanning tree (LMST) which is an energy-efficient structure. Besides the energy consideration, delay reliability is also considered by means of the DEP. A node’s DEP reflects its desired progress in LMST which should be largely satisfied. Hence, the LMST edges might be replaced by unit disk graph (UDG) edges which can progress further in LMST. The DEP metric is rooted on realistic degree-based delay model so that DEDA increases the delay reliability to a large extent compared to other hop-based algorithms. We also combine our DEDA framework with area coverage and localized connected dominating set algorithms to achieve two more resilient DEDA implementations: A-DEDA and AC-DEDA. The simulation results confirm that our original DEDA and its two enhanced variants save more energy and attain a higher delay reliability ratio than existing protocols.

Data aggregation is an important technique in wireless sensor networks. The data are gathered together by data fusion routines along the routing path, which is called data-centralized routing. We propose a localized, Delay-bounded and Energy-efficient Data Aggregation framework(DEDA) based on the novel concept of DEsired Progress (DEP). This framework works under request-driven networks with realistic MAC layer protocols. It is based on localized minimal spanning tree (LMST) which is an energy-efficient structure. Besides the energy consideration, delay reliability is also considered by means of the DEP. A node’s DEP reflects its desired progress in LMST which should be largely satisfied. Hence, the LMST edges might be replaced by unit disk graph (UDG) edges which can progress further in LMST. The DEP metric is rooted on realistic degree-based delay model so that DEDA increases the delay reliability to a large extent compared to other hop-based algorithms. We also combine our DEDA framework with area coverage and localized connected dominating set algorithms to achieve two more resilient DEDA implementations: A-DEDA and AC-DEDA. The simulation results confirm that our original DEDA and its two enhanced variants save more energy and attain a higher delay reliability ratio than existing protocols.

Data aggregation is an important technique in wireless sensor networks. The data are gathered together by data fusion routines along the routing path, which is called data-centralized routing. We propose a localized, Delay-bounded and Energy-efficient Data Aggregation framework(DEDA) based on the novel concept of DEsired Progress (DEP). This framework works under request-driven networks with realistic MAC layer protocols. It is based on localized minimal spanning tree (LMST) which is an energy-efficient structure. Besides the energy consideration, delay reliability is also considered by means of the DEP. A node’s DEP reflects its desired progress in LMST which should be largely satisfied. Hence, the LMST edges might be replaced by unit disk graph (UDG) edges which can progress further in LMST. The DEP metric is rooted on realistic degree-based delay model so that DEDA increases the delay reliability to a large extent compared to other hop-based algorithms. We also combine our DEDA framework with area coverage and localized connected dominating set algorithms to achieve two more resilient DEDA implementations: A-DEDA and AC-DEDA. The simulation results confirm that our original DEDA and its two enhanced variants save more energy and attain a higher delay reliability ratio than existing protocols.

abstract: Process variations have become increasingly important for scaled technologies starting at 45nm. The increased variations are primarily due to random dopant fluctuations, line-edge roughness and oxide thickness fluctuation. These variations greatly impact all aspects of circuit performance and pose a grand challenge to future robust IC design. To improve robustness, efficient methodology is required that considers effect of variations in the design flow. Analyzing timing variability of complex circuits with HSPICE simulations is very time consuming. This thesis proposes an analytical model to predict variability in CMOS circuits that is quick and accurate. There are several analytical models to estimate nominal delay performance but very little work has been done to accurately model delay variability. The proposed model is comprehensive and estimates nominal delay and variability as a function of transistor width, load capacitance and transition time. First, models are developed for library gates and the accuracy of the models is verified with HSPICE simulations for 45nm and 32nm technology nodes. The difference between predicted and simulated σ/μ for the library gates is less than 1%. Next, the accuracy of the model for nominal delay is verified for larger circuits including ISCAS'85 benchmark circuits. The model predicted results are within 4% error of HSPICE simulated results and take a small fraction of the time, for 45nm technology. Delay variability is analyzed for various paths and it is observed that non-critical paths can become critical because of Vth variation. Variability on shortest paths show that rate of hold violations increase enormously with increasing Vth variation. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Electrical Engineering 2011

Neste trabalho é desenvolvida uma ferramenta de dimensionamento de portas lógicas para circuitos integrados, utilizando técnicas de otimização de problemas baseadas em Programação Geométrica (PG). Para dimensionar as portas lógicas de um circuito, primeiramente elas são modeladas usando o modelo de chaves RC e o atraso é calculado usando o modelo de Elmore, que produz funções posinomiais possibilitando a resolução do problema por programação geométrica. Para cada porta é utilizado um fator de escala que multiplica a largura dos seus transistores, onde as variáveis que representam os fatores de escala são as variáveis de otimização do problema. O dimensionador de portas desenvolvido neste trabalho é para circuitos CMOS e é parametrizável para diversas tecnologias de fabricação CMOS. Além disso, a otimização pode ser feita de duas maneiras, minimizando o atraso restringindo a área do circuito ou, minimizando a área e restringindo o atraso do circuito. Para testar o dimensionador de portas foram consideradas duas tecnologias de fabricação diferentes, 45nm e 350nm, onde os resultados foram comparados com o dimensionamento fornecido em uma típica biblioteca de células. Para a tecnologia de 45nm, o dimensionamento de portas minimizando o atraso, fornecido pelo método proposto neste trabalho, obteve uma redução, em média, de 21% no atraso, mantendo a mesma área e potência do dimensionamento fornecido pela biblioteca de standard cells. Após, fez-se uma otimização de área, ainda considerando a tecnologia de 45nm, onde o atraso é restrito ao valor encontrado na minimização de atraso. Essa otimização secundária resultou em uma redução média de 28,2% em área e 27,3% em potência, comparado aos valores dados pela minimização de atraso. Isso mostra que, ao fazer a minimização de atraso seguida da minimização de área, ou vice-versa, encontra-se o menor atraso e a menor área para o circuito, onde uma otimização não impede a outra. As mesmas otimizações foram feitas para a tecnologia de 350nm, onde o dimensionamento de portas considerando a minimização de atraso obteve uma redução, em média, de 4,5% no atraso, mantendo os valores de consumo de potência e área semelhantes aos valores dados pelo dimensionamento fornecido em uma biblioteca comercial de células em 350nm. A minimização de área, feita em seguida, restringindo o atraso ao valor dado pela minimização de atraso foi capaz de reduzir a área em 29,9%, em média, e a potência em 28,5%, em média. / In this work a gate sizing tool is developed using problem optimization techniques based on Geometric Programming. To size the gates in a circuit, first, the logic gates are modeled using the RC switch model and the delay is calculated using Elmore delay model, which produces posynomial functions, enabling the problem solution by geometric programming. For each port a scale factor is set that multiplies the transistors width, where the variables that represent the scale factors are the problem optimization variables. Gate sizing developed in this work is for CMOS circuits and is configurable to several CMOS manufacturing technologies. Moreover, the optimization can be done in two ways, minimizing delay restricting area or by minimizing area restricting circuit delay. In this work, gate sizing tests were made considers two different technologies, 45nm and 350nm, where the results were compared with the sizing available in a typical standard-cell library. For 45nm technology, the gate sizing proposed in this work considering delay minimization, obtained a reduction, in average, of 21% in delay, keeping the same area and power values of the sizing provided by standard-cells library. After, it was made an area optimization restricting delay to the value found at delay minimization. This optimization allowed an average reduction of 28.2% in area and 27.3% in power consumption, compared to the values obtained by delay minimization. This shows that by making the minimization of delay followed by the minimization of area, the smallest delay and the smallest area for the circuit is found, where an optimization does not prevent the other. The same optimizations were made for 350nm technology, where gate sizing considering delay minimization achieved a reduction, on average, of 4.5% in delay, keeping power consumption and area values similar to the values given using the sizes found in a commercial standard-cell library in 350nm. The area minimization, restricting delay to the value given by delay minimization, was able to reduce the area in 29.9% and power at 28.5%, on average.

Neste trabalho é desenvolvida uma ferramenta de dimensionamento de portas lógicas para circuitos integrados, utilizando técnicas de otimização de problemas baseadas em Programação Geométrica (PG). Para dimensionar as portas lógicas de um circuito, primeiramente elas são modeladas usando o modelo de chaves RC e o atraso é calculado usando o modelo de Elmore, que produz funções posinomiais possibilitando a resolução do problema por programação geométrica. Para cada porta é utilizado um fator de escala que multiplica a largura dos seus transistores, onde as variáveis que representam os fatores de escala são as variáveis de otimização do problema. O dimensionador de portas desenvolvido neste trabalho é para circuitos CMOS e é parametrizável para diversas tecnologias de fabricação CMOS. Além disso, a otimização pode ser feita de duas maneiras, minimizando o atraso restringindo a área do circuito ou, minimizando a área e restringindo o atraso do circuito. Para testar o dimensionador de portas foram consideradas duas tecnologias de fabricação diferentes, 45nm e 350nm, onde os resultados foram comparados com o dimensionamento fornecido em uma típica biblioteca de células. Para a tecnologia de 45nm, o dimensionamento de portas minimizando o atraso, fornecido pelo método proposto neste trabalho, obteve uma redução, em média, de 21% no atraso, mantendo a mesma área e potência do dimensionamento fornecido pela biblioteca de standard cells. Após, fez-se uma otimização de área, ainda considerando a tecnologia de 45nm, onde o atraso é restrito ao valor encontrado na minimização de atraso. Essa otimização secundária resultou em uma redução média de 28,2% em área e 27,3% em potência, comparado aos valores dados pela minimização de atraso. Isso mostra que, ao fazer a minimização de atraso seguida da minimização de área, ou vice-versa, encontra-se o menor atraso e a menor área para o circuito, onde uma otimização não impede a outra. As mesmas otimizações foram feitas para a tecnologia de 350nm, onde o dimensionamento de portas considerando a minimização de atraso obteve uma redução, em média, de 4,5% no atraso, mantendo os valores de consumo de potência e área semelhantes aos valores dados pelo dimensionamento fornecido em uma biblioteca comercial de células em 350nm. A minimização de área, feita em seguida, restringindo o atraso ao valor dado pela minimização de atraso foi capaz de reduzir a área em 29,9%, em média, e a potência em 28,5%, em média. / In this work a gate sizing tool is developed using problem optimization techniques based on Geometric Programming. To size the gates in a circuit, first, the logic gates are modeled using the RC switch model and the delay is calculated using Elmore delay model, which produces posynomial functions, enabling the problem solution by geometric programming. For each port a scale factor is set that multiplies the transistors width, where the variables that represent the scale factors are the problem optimization variables. Gate sizing developed in this work is for CMOS circuits and is configurable to several CMOS manufacturing technologies. Moreover, the optimization can be done in two ways, minimizing delay restricting area or by minimizing area restricting circuit delay. In this work, gate sizing tests were made considers two different technologies, 45nm and 350nm, where the results were compared with the sizing available in a typical standard-cell library. For 45nm technology, the gate sizing proposed in this work considering delay minimization, obtained a reduction, in average, of 21% in delay, keeping the same area and power values of the sizing provided by standard-cells library. After, it was made an area optimization restricting delay to the value found at delay minimization. This optimization allowed an average reduction of 28.2% in area and 27.3% in power consumption, compared to the values obtained by delay minimization. This shows that by making the minimization of delay followed by the minimization of area, the smallest delay and the smallest area for the circuit is found, where an optimization does not prevent the other. The same optimizations were made for 350nm technology, where gate sizing considering delay minimization achieved a reduction, on average, of 4.5% in delay, keeping power consumption and area values similar to the values given using the sizes found in a commercial standard-cell library in 350nm. The area minimization, restricting delay to the value given by delay minimization, was able to reduce the area in 29.9% and power at 28.5%, on average.

Neste trabalho é desenvolvida uma ferramenta de dimensionamento de portas lógicas para circuitos integrados, utilizando técnicas de otimização de problemas baseadas em Programação Geométrica (PG). Para dimensionar as portas lógicas de um circuito, primeiramente elas são modeladas usando o modelo de chaves RC e o atraso é calculado usando o modelo de Elmore, que produz funções posinomiais possibilitando a resolução do problema por programação geométrica. Para cada porta é utilizado um fator de escala que multiplica a largura dos seus transistores, onde as variáveis que representam os fatores de escala são as variáveis de otimização do problema. O dimensionador de portas desenvolvido neste trabalho é para circuitos CMOS e é parametrizável para diversas tecnologias de fabricação CMOS. Além disso, a otimização pode ser feita de duas maneiras, minimizando o atraso restringindo a área do circuito ou, minimizando a área e restringindo o atraso do circuito. Para testar o dimensionador de portas foram consideradas duas tecnologias de fabricação diferentes, 45nm e 350nm, onde os resultados foram comparados com o dimensionamento fornecido em uma típica biblioteca de células. Para a tecnologia de 45nm, o dimensionamento de portas minimizando o atraso, fornecido pelo método proposto neste trabalho, obteve uma redução, em média, de 21% no atraso, mantendo a mesma área e potência do dimensionamento fornecido pela biblioteca de standard cells. Após, fez-se uma otimização de área, ainda considerando a tecnologia de 45nm, onde o atraso é restrito ao valor encontrado na minimização de atraso. Essa otimização secundária resultou em uma redução média de 28,2% em área e 27,3% em potência, comparado aos valores dados pela minimização de atraso. Isso mostra que, ao fazer a minimização de atraso seguida da minimização de área, ou vice-versa, encontra-se o menor atraso e a menor área para o circuito, onde uma otimização não impede a outra. As mesmas otimizações foram feitas para a tecnologia de 350nm, onde o dimensionamento de portas considerando a minimização de atraso obteve uma redução, em média, de 4,5% no atraso, mantendo os valores de consumo de potência e área semelhantes aos valores dados pelo dimensionamento fornecido em uma biblioteca comercial de células em 350nm. A minimização de área, feita em seguida, restringindo o atraso ao valor dado pela minimização de atraso foi capaz de reduzir a área em 29,9%, em média, e a potência em 28,5%, em média. / In this work a gate sizing tool is developed using problem optimization techniques based on Geometric Programming. To size the gates in a circuit, first, the logic gates are modeled using the RC switch model and the delay is calculated using Elmore delay model, which produces posynomial functions, enabling the problem solution by geometric programming. For each port a scale factor is set that multiplies the transistors width, where the variables that represent the scale factors are the problem optimization variables. Gate sizing developed in this work is for CMOS circuits and is configurable to several CMOS manufacturing technologies. Moreover, the optimization can be done in two ways, minimizing delay restricting area or by minimizing area restricting circuit delay. In this work, gate sizing tests were made considers two different technologies, 45nm and 350nm, where the results were compared with the sizing available in a typical standard-cell library. For 45nm technology, the gate sizing proposed in this work considering delay minimization, obtained a reduction, in average, of 21% in delay, keeping the same area and power values of the sizing provided by standard-cells library. After, it was made an area optimization restricting delay to the value found at delay minimization. This optimization allowed an average reduction of 28.2% in area and 27.3% in power consumption, compared to the values obtained by delay minimization. This shows that by making the minimization of delay followed by the minimization of area, the smallest delay and the smallest area for the circuit is found, where an optimization does not prevent the other. The same optimizations were made for 350nm technology, where gate sizing considering delay minimization achieved a reduction, on average, of 4.5% in delay, keeping power consumption and area values similar to the values given using the sizes found in a commercial standard-cell library in 350nm. The area minimization, restricting delay to the value given by delay minimization, was able to reduce the area in 29.9% and power at 28.5%, on average.

Data aggregation is an important technique in wireless sensor networks. The data are gathered together by data fusion routines along the routing path, which is called data-centralized routing. We propose a localized, Delay-bounded and Energy-efficient Data Aggregation framework(DEDA) based on the novel concept of DEsired Progress (DEP). This framework works under request-driven networks with realistic MAC layer protocols. It is based on localized minimal spanning tree (LMST) which is an energy-efficient structure. Besides the energy consideration, delay reliability is also considered by means of the DEP. A node’s DEP reflects its desired progress in LMST which should be largely satisfied. Hence, the LMST edges might be replaced by unit disk graph (UDG) edges which can progress further in LMST. The DEP metric is rooted on realistic degree-based delay model so that DEDA increases the delay reliability to a large extent compared to other hop-based algorithms. We also combine our DEDA framework with area coverage and localized connected dominating set algorithms to achieve two more resilient DEDA implementations: A-DEDA and AC-DEDA. The simulation results confirm that our original DEDA and its two enhanced variants save more energy and attain a higher delay reliability ratio than existing protocols.

Task allocation, and task switching have an important effect on the efficiency of distributed, locally controlled systems such as social insect colonies. Both efficiency and workload distribution are global features of the system which are not directly accessible to workers and can only be sampled locally by an individual in a distributed system. To investigate how the cost of task switching affects global performance we use social wasp societies as a metaphor to construct a simple model system with four interconnected tasks. Our goal is not the accurate description of the behavior of a given species, but to seek general conclusions on the effect of noise and time delay on a behavior that is partitioned into subtasks. In our model a nest structure needs to be constructed by the cooperation of individuals that carry out different tasks: builders, pulp and water foragers, and individuals storing water. We report a simulation study based on a model using delay-differential equations to analyze the trade-off between task switching costs and keeping a high degree of adaptivity in a dynamic, noisy environment. Combining the methods of time-delayed equations and stochastic processes we are able to represent the influence of swarm size and task switching sensitivity. We find that the system is stable for reasonable choices of parameters but shows oscillations for extreme choices of parameters and we find that the system is resilient to perturbations. We identify a trade-off between reaching equilibria of high performance and having short transients.