M.Cur. / The problems women in our community are faced with are multi-dimensional and there is absolutely no community that can be declared problem-free. Many women face the pressure of having a number of responsibilities namely working, being a wife and mother, taking care of their families and perhaps caring for aging parents. Sometimes the pressure can be too overwhelming to manage. As a result, many women become depressed. The genuine life events that most often appear in connection with depression are various, but there is one distinguishing feature that appears in many cases, over and over: loss of self-esteem, of empowerment, of self confidence accompanied by feelings of worthlessness. In general, any life change, often caused by events beyond one's control, will damage the structure that gave life meaning. The likelihood of becoming depressed is increased by the lack of supportive, confiding relationship with a partner, spouse, friend, stressful life events and poor communication patterns within relationships. Studies on depression among Black-African women could not be traced. Despite the fact that considerable research on the women and depression has been done in other parts of the world, no studies have been done on similar subjects in Namibia. It was therefore considered necessary to find out how women suffering from depression from this part of the world tell their life stories. The purposes of the study were two-fold. Firstly, to explore and describe the life stories of adult depressed women in perk urban Namibia. Secondly, to use the information obtained to describe guidelines for the compilation of a health education support program for psychiatric nurses working with these patients at psychiatric outpatient clinic as well as in the community. The research questions that were generated are: how do adult depressed women tell their life stories, and then how can the information be utilised to describe guidelines to support psychiatric nurses to assist depressed women in their quest for mental health? The researcher used an exploratory, descriptive, contextual and phenomenological qualitative design to answer these research questions. Phenomenological interviews were conducted with ten (10) respondents who have been purposively selected. This was done after obtaining the necessary permission from the Ministry of Health and Social Services and informed consent from the research participants. The interviews were conducted by the researcher in Oshiwambo and English. Steps were taken throughout the course of the study to ensure trustworthiness. All the interviews were transcribed verbatim. Data was analysed following Tesch's method and the service of an independent coder was obtained. The results indicate that impaired interpersonal interactions and stressful life events have a negative influence on the daily life of women leading to the development of depressive symptoms. Guidelines intended to support psychiatric nurses were drawn up based on the themes that emerged from the raw data. These guidelines are strategies to be used by psychiatric nurses working with depressed women to assist them in managing their own depression. Possibilities for the application of the results in nursing education, nursing practice, nursing research are discussed. It is concluded that women suffering from depression need support from the psychiatric nurses in order to facilitate the promotion, maintenance and restoration of their mental health, which is an integral part of health.

M.A. / Clayton (1996) cites studies of stress experienced by the elderly, such as rape (Frank et al. 1984) o catastrophic financial loss (Ganzini et al. 1990) (such as in burglary or hijacking) that have indicate( that these stresses may result in the onset of major depressive disorder and generalised anxiety disorder response is depression. This study will attempt to compare elderly persons (Group 1) having been admitted to an old age facility less than two years prior, with a matched sample of same (Group 2) having been resident a the same facility for longer than that. This subdivision into Groups 1 and 2 will be the independen variable. The dependent variables will be various psychometric measures, being the Rotter Locus o Control Test, Beck Depression Test, Wallston Health Locus of Control Test and the Simmons Self. Image Scale. Respondents will also have an erythrocyte sedimentation test performed, which is simple non-specific blood test that is also an excellent measure of overall health and concomitarr stress levels. Manipulation of the results will support or refute the detailed hypotheses as set out it the Methodology chapter. The aim of this study is to build on studies such as those of Meyerson anc Haggerty (1962) (in Ader, 1981) and Heyman (1992) by introducing the differentiating factor 01 institutionalisation and locus of control as a factor to be considered in primary health care.

M.A. (Counselling Psychology) / According to the psychiatric and psychological literature, researchers adopt controversial standpoints regarding the classification of Dysthymia Disorder. Some researchers regard Dysthymia Disorder as an independent diagnostic entity, while others consider it a variant of Unipolar Major Depression. The aim of this research is to determine, by means of a comparative investigation, the clinical personality disorder differences or similarities which occur in patients with the two disorders. As a point of departure, this study examines those aspects of the DSM-III-R and the views of the future DSM-IV concerning Dysthymia Disorder and Unipolar Major Depression, as well as recent theoretical approaches to these disorders. Divergent findings in respect of different factors for the two syndrome disorders are described. The different sub-uypea of Dysthymia and the overlap among these sub-types as well as the overlap between the two disorder-groups are focused on. Attention is given to the relationship between depression and personality disorders. For the experimental investigation, 100 patients from TARA the H. Moross-centre, Weskoppies Hospital and Vista Private Clinic, and 20 patients from three private practices, are consulted and tested. Because of the difference in application of criteria by different researchers, only patients the criteria of the DSM-III-R for Unipolar Major and Dysthymia Disorder are used as test subjects.

The aim of this research was to test a series of theoretical models based on Beck (1967) cognitive diathesis-stress and Kwon and Oei (1994) linear mediational models as well as earlier research findings to determine the best-fitting model to explain the aetiological processes of suicide attempts in Taiwanese people. The participants were patients diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorders (MDD) recruited from three hospitals in Taiwan. They were used for data analyses in both cross-sectional (main) study and longitudinal (follow-up) study. In addition, a sample of students recruited from three universities in Taiwan was used for data analyses in the generalized study to examine the generalization of the results from clinical depressed patients to nonclinical university students. In the main study, by the application of structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques, four initial models were compared using the MDD patients (N = 162). The SEM analyses showed that two interactional models failed to provide an adequate fit to the given data, suggesting that the hypothesis of interaction between dysfunctional attitudes and negative life events in predicting the psychopathology of Taiwanese MDD patients was not supported. The SEM analyses supported two mediational models in terms of goodness-of-fit. Because the two mediational models were very similar, they were combined to form a combined mediational model. The SEM analyses indicated that the combined model provided an adequate fit to the given data. After modifying the model to improve its goodness-of-fit, the final modified combined mediational model was selected as the most appropriate in representing the data of Taiwanese MDD patients. The final model revealed that dysfunctional attitudes mediated the relationship between negative life events and depressive hopelessness, which in turn increased depression, which then precipitated suicidal ideation, which finally resulted in suicide attempts. In addition, it was found that negative life events exerted direct influences on depressive hopelessness and suicide attempts; sex and age exerted direct influences on negative life events. However, social support buffered the impact of negative life stress on dysfunctional attitudes and compliance with medications prevented the development of depression. In the follow-up study, the final modified combined mediational model was validated and reexamined with two-wave panel data gathered from the same population of Taiwanese MDD patients who participated in assessments twice, separated by a six-month interval (N = 142). The SEM analyses showed that the model provided an adequate fit to the two-wave panel data, suggesting that the model can be applied for predicting suicide attempts over six months in Taiwanese MDD patients. In the generalized study, the findings obtained from the MDD patients were replicated in a sample of Taiwanese university students (N = 324). Results revealed that the final modified combined mediational model failed to fit the given data. The result suggests that the most appropriate model for Taiwanese MDD patients can not be generalized to Taiwanese students. Some cautions and limitations should be noted. First, the models obtained from clinical and nonclinical people in Taiwan should not be directly generalized to people outside Taiwan. Further research using clinical and nonclinical samples from other countries to cross-validate the models was suggested. In addition, the researcher’s interventions during the follow-up period may disturb the relationship between predictor variables and subsequent suicide attempts. However, the problems appear to be unavoidable because of the research ethics of protecting participants from suicidal risk. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1339675 / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Adelaide, School of Psychology, 2008

M.A. / HIV and AIDS are a growing problem with multiple implications on various fields in our society. It looks as if we are conscious only of the tip of the iceberg. This study commits itself to suggest alternatives other than medical support to ensure longevity in HIV and AIDS persons. From within a psychological framework certain psychological and social factors are identified that could possibly have an influence on immunology in the form of CD4 and CD8 counts. The results suggest that definite links exists between certain psychological factors and physical markers of immunology (CD4 and CD8 counts). A Factor analysis show that Social factors (measured with the FES scale) possibly lead to emotions that resort under psychological factors (Conflict, Course of illness and Independence). These factors unleash the need of self- expression. If this need to selfexpression are not relieved it leads to psychological factors (Anger, Depression and Tension). These factors have a marked short-term effect on CD4 count as well as a long-term effect on CD8 count. The result is a circular response comprising of psychological factors (Anger, Depression and Tension) that lead to feelings of avoidance and fatalism. In turn these factors lead to feelings of hopelessness resulting in a strengthening effect on another set of psychological factors (Conflict, Course of illness and Independence). OptimismNigor repeatedly played a leading role in the Course of illness, influencing the cognitive attitude of respondents. Initially 71 respondents took part in the study but comprehensive data over the sixmonth period could only be obtained for 40 respondents. The results suggest that a specific dynamic are concealed in the process between mind, body and illness and needs to be explored through further research. .

D.Litt. et Phil. / Although rapid progress was made in the past decade in the development of short term treatment approaches, relatively little attention was given to the treatment of Dysthymic Depression as a separate disorder. It is therefore important that medical doctors and other health professionals recognize this disorder as a separate disorder from Major Depression and adjust their treatment of this disorder accordingly (Keller, 1994). Although Dysthymia is seen as 'n low grade disorder and not as severe as Major Depression, this disorder also has a hampering effect on the quality of the individual's life. It affects relationships with meaningful others, mental and physical well - being as well as productivity (Keller, 1994; Klerman & Weissman, 1992). With the hampering effect on the individual's life, Dysthymic Depression is also costly and is a substantial burden for the family and the community. According to Rupp (1995) appropriate treatment of individuals with affective disorders will be costeffective. , The prevalence of depression in primary care make this disorder an ideal target for treatment-(Robinson, 1995). In this regard, Robinson (1995) mentions that treatment for these disorders is less intensse and'more short term that specialized treatments. In the past few years there have been a.shift from long term treatment strategies to short term structured handbook orientated treatment programs for disorders like depression. Pantalon, Lubetkin & Fishman (1995) emphasize the need for objective and •knowledgeable guides for the treatment of mental disorders. According to these researchers selfhelp books and guides are effective together with cognitive behavioral therapy. The aim of this study was therefore the development of a short term cost effective handbook orientated treatment program for Dysthymic Depression as well as the effectiveness of the treatment program. Antoher aspect of this treatment program that makes it unique, is the exercise component that is incorporated into the program with the cognitive behavioral approach. A group of 23 Dysthymic patients have been evaluated to establish the degree of depression, personality pathology that is present and the course of the therapeutic intervention. This group , received treatment over a period of 8 weeks. A second group of 22 patients served as a control group. The control group received medication and other therapy. The results of this study indicate that not only 'did the intensity of the depression lift, but certain indexes of psychopathology were also reduced. The indexes of psychopathology that indicated an reduction, were the Avoidant, Self-defeating, Schizotypal, Borderline, Anxiety, Somatoform, Dysthymic as well as Major Depression disorders. The effectiveness of the therapy sessions were also monitored over the , period of 8 weeks and indicated a reduction in certain negative factors, namely: Aggression, Anxiety, Fatigue, Sadness and Skepticism. While these factors indicated a reduction in prevalence the following factors indicated an increase in preValence over the 8 therapy sessions: . Surgency, Elation, Concentration, Social Affect, Egotism and Vigor. Although the test sample were relatively small, it is accepted that it was representative of the universum of the Gauteng region where this sample was taken from. From the results obtained from this study it seems that - this handbook orientated treatment program was not only effective for Dysthymic Depression, but also for certain indexes of psychopathology over the 8-week therapy sessions. From the analysis of the components of the therapy sessions, is clear that the model of the Dysthymic individuals showed an improvement with the handbook orientated treatment program.

M.A. / Hubley (1990) notes that Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a relatively recently recognized disease. It is caused by infection with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), which attacks selected cells in the immune system and produces defects in functioning. These defects may not be apparent for years. They lead, however, to a severe suppression of the immune system's ability to resist harmful organisms. This leaves the body open to an invasion by various infections, which are therefore called opportunistic diseases, and to the development of unusual cancers. The virus also tends to reach certain brain cells. This leads to so-called neuropsychiatric abnormalities or psychological disturbances caused by physical damage to nerve cells. Many of those infected with HIV may not even be aware that they carry and can spread the virus. Combating it is a major challenge to biomedical scientists and health-care providers. HIV infection and AIDS occur among the most pressing public policy and public health problems world-wide. Since the first HIV/AIDS cases have been reported in 1981, through mid-1993, more than 600 cases were reported in South Africa. This is only the tip of the iceberg of HIV/AIDS infection as it was estimated that between 2 and 2.5 million South Africans had been infected with the virus through the early 1990s but not yet developed the clinical symptoms. In terms of the historical data from previous surveys (ie. the results of the 1996 survey) in South Africa confirmed the trend of a growing HIV/AIDS epidemic. HIV infection has increased in all provinces, but Kwa-Zulu Natal and Mpumalanga had the highest HIV prevalence rates of 18,23% compared to 1994's '14,35% and 16-18%, compared to 12-16% respectively (see table 1).. Of particular concern are the pregnant women in South Africa under twenty years where a prevalence of 12,78% has been found. Thirty per cent of babies born to HIV positive women in South Africa are infected. Of the 3638 births in VVitbank — a rather small town in Mpumalanga-.Province — in 1996, 219 of the women were tested HIV positive (Masiphile Vol. 1: 1997).

M.A. / "Stroke is one of the leading causes of death and disability in all races in South Africa" (Fritz & Penn, 1992, p 1). It has devastating effects, and may impact on every aspect of the person's functioning. Research shows that depression is common after stroke, becoming more of a problem with time, and having a greater effect on quality of life than the actual disability (Lezak, 1995). Despite such evidence psychologists have played a very limited role in the rehabilitation of this group. Those with communication problems especially have been excluded from research and therapy, which usually require competence with language to be successful. This study attempts to find an alternative method of research and therapy in order to include this group. Following the model of learned helplessness (Seligman, in, Bleiberg, 1986), it was proposed that the unavoidable, inescapable effects of stroke lead to feelings of helplessness, which are also impossible to escape, and the person soon looses the motivation to attempt to control the situation. This then leads to depression. A method of therapy which breaks this cycle, and allows for the person to experience how their actions do have an effect on their lives is needed. In addition to this, an alternative means of self expression for those with communication difficulties needs to be provided. Art therapy was found to address the problems presented by this group (Dailey, 1984). It has proved useful with other populations that have not been able to benefit from traditional psychotherapy. It becomes an alternative means of self expression for those whose communication ability is compromised. It is accessible to most people, as it only requires the ability to make marks on paper. A theme centred, art therapy approach was therefore chosen for the study. The aims of the study were; to create a therapeutic milieu which allowed for self expression, specifically the expression of emotions, which included all the participants; to investigate the effects of introducing an opportunity for self expression on self concept and group process; and to look at the themes which emerge from the art. The participants were members of a pre-existing support group for stroke survivors. A quasiexperimental design was used. The Draw a Person Test, was administered pre and post intervention. Additional information was gathered using the Beck's Depression Inventory and a demographic questionnaire. This study uses a qualitative method, which includes information regarding the researcher's experience, and is interpreted from the researcher's perspective. It was found that art therapy had a positive effect on self concept. It influenced group process, as participants who were previously marginalised became more central. Numerous themes emerged, some which were specific to individuals, but others that were of relevance to the group as a whole. It proved rewarding for the researcher, both as a therapist and in terms of her relationship with her father who is a stroke survivor with aphasia. Art therapy therefore seems to be a useful tool to be used with this group that has traditionally been excluded from therapy and research. It is suggested that further research would be useful, and suggestions regarding future research are discussed.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The substantial interpersonal and economic costs of depression make it imperative to better understand the predictors and moderators of depressive symptoms. The ability to use social support protects people from depressive symptoms, but individuals high in attachment avoidance tend not to use others as sources of support. Research has found that attachment avoidance is related to depressive symptoms in some samples but not in others (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007; Shea, 2011). Thus, there appear to be factors that moderate the relationship between attachment avoidance and depressive symptoms. The present study examined if cognitive abilities that facilitate effective emotion regulation strategies moderate the relationship between attachment avoidance and depressive symptoms. Using a sample of college students, attachment avoidance, cognitive abilities, depressive symptoms, and other indices of psychological distress and well-being were measured and examined for evidence of moderation via hierarchical linear regression. The hypothesis that cognitive abilities moderate the relationship between attachment avoidance and depressive symptoms was not supported (ΔR2 = 0.02, p = .68). Factors contributing to the null findings are discussed and conceptual and methodological suggestions are offered for future research.