A depressão é hoje a doença mental mais comum do mundo, afetando mais de 121 milhões de pessoas. Além disso, estima-se que em aproximadamente uma década ela se torne a 2º doença responsável pela perda prematura de vida entre todas as idades e sexos. Diferentes propostas foram feitas no intuito de se compreender os mecanismos pelos quais essa doença incide, contudo a etiologia dos transtornos depressivos ainda não é totalmente entendida. Existem consideráveis evidências de que a administração perinatal de lipopolissacarídeo (LPS), uma endotoxina bacteriana, promove efeitos persistentes no desenvolvimento e comportamento da prole de camundongos, os quais podem-se manter até a idade adulta. Ainda, esses eventos podem ter implicações evolucionárias ligadas a alterações transgeracionais. Tendo em vista que a ativação do sistema imune pode estar relacionada com os transtornos depressivos, o presente trabalho expos pré-natalmente ao LPS uma geração de camundongos avaliando os efeitos comportamentais dessa exposição em três gerações subsequentes levando-se em consideração os comportamentos depressivos e não depressivos de cada geração avaliada. Para isso camundongos fêmeas, após terem o comportamento selecionado pelo teste de suspensão da cauda (TSC), foram cruzadas com machos de mesmo comportamento recebendo 100g/kg de LPS ou solução salina no 15º dia de prenhez. Após os nascimentos, as gerações subsequentes tiveram o comportamento em questão avaliado pelo TSC, bem como a atividade geral em campo aberto. Além disso, a interação materno-filhote foi avaliada, uma vez que alterações na mesma poderiam contribuir para os efeitos do tratamento com a endotoxina. Ainda, foi-se realizado um desafio com LPS na geração filial 3, na qual o nível de citocinas e a expressão do comportamento doentio foram avaliadas. Os resultados mostraram que (i) a administração do LPS na geração parental não afetou o comportamento depressivo e não depressivo nas três gerações avaliadas, dado que animais com comportamento depressivo tiveram mais filhotes com o mesmo comportamento em todas as gerações. (ii) Foram observadas alterações no comportamento materno da geração parental, possivelmente ligadas a motivação materna desses animais. (iii) Foram encontradas alterações transgeracionais na atividade geral de camundongos machos e fêmeas das gerações filiais 1 e 2. Tais alterações foram mais x expressivas nos machos e, havendo diferenças entre o comportamento. Esses dados apontam que a exposição a endotoxina possui diferentes consequências de acordo com o comportamento e, (iv) os animais da geração filial 3 quando desafiados com a endotoxina apresentaram maior comportamento doentio e maiores níveis de citocinas. Esses dados apontam para um forte componente genético na transmissão do comportamento, além de, uma influencia epigenética na modulação do mesmo. Ainda, foi possível concluir que a inflamação gerada pela administração pré-natal do LPS atua de forma distinta entre os sexos, bem como o histórico comportamental, no caso, o comportamento depressivo e não depressivo estudados nesse trabalho / Depression disorders are to be considered the most common mental illness affecting more than 121 million people worldwide. It is estimated that approximately one decade it becomes the 2nd disease most responsible for premature loss of life of all ages and sexes. Different proposals to understand this disorders have been made in the past years, however its etiology it is still yet fully understood. There is considerable evidence that the administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a bacterial endotoxin, promotes persistent effects on development and behavior of the offspring of mice, which are maintained into adulthood. Still, these events may have evolutionary implications related to transgenerational changes. Given that activation of the immune system may be related to depressive disorders, this study aimed to expose a generation of mice to LPS evaluating the behavioral effects on three subsequent generations taking into account the depressive-like and non depressive-like behaviors assessed on each generation by the tail suspension test (TST). For this, female mice after behavior selected by the tail suspension test (TST) were crossed with males of the same behavior and exposed to 100g/kg of LPS or saline solution on day 15th of pregnancy. After births, the subsequent generations were also evaluated on the TST and in the open field for general activity. In addition, the maternal interaction was also evaluated, since changes on this parameter could contribute to the treatment effects of the endotoxin. Yet, has been performed a challenge with LPS in the generation branch 3, wherein the level of expression of cytokines and sickness behavior were evaluated. The results showed that (i) the administration of LPS in the parental generation did not affect the depressive-like behaviors on the three generations evaluated, since animals with depressive-like and non depressive-like behavior had more offspring with the same behavior in all generations. (ii) Changes were observed in maternal behavior of the parental generation which is possibly related to a change in motivational state of those animals. (iii) Transgenerational alterations were found in the general activity of male and female mice of the filial generation 1 and 2. These changes were more significant in males and differences between depressive-like e non depressive-like behaviors were also observed. Together, these data indicate that the exposure to endotoxin has different consequences according to the animal historical behavior and, xii finally, (iv) the animals of filial generation 3 when challenged with endotoxin had higher sickness behavior and higher levels of cytokines when evaluated in the open field test. These data point to a strong genetic component in the transmission of behavior and, besides, a possible influence of epigenetic mechanism of the same. Furthermore it was possible to concluded that inflammation state created by the prenatal LPS exposure acts differently according to the animal historical behavior, in this case, the depressive-like and non depressive-like behavior studied, and also acting differently according to the sexes

Submitted by Marcos Anselmo (marcos.anselmo@unipampa.edu.br) on 2018-09-27T15:36:18Z No. of bitstreams: 1 VANDREZA CARDOSO BORTOLOTTO.pdf: 2120802 bytes, checksum: d9c6e128c892e469fe3f24a3ebad9f86 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marcos Anselmo (marcos.anselmo@unipampa.edu.br) on 2018-09-27T15:36:32Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 VANDREZA CARDOSO BORTOLOTTO.pdf: 2120802 bytes, checksum: d9c6e128c892e469fe3f24a3ebad9f86 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-27T15:36:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 VANDREZA CARDOSO BORTOLOTTO.pdf: 2120802 bytes, checksum: d9c6e128c892e469fe3f24a3ebad9f86 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-07-17 / A glândula tireoide é uma das maiores glândulas do corpo, responsável pela produção de triiodotironina (T3) e tiroxina (T4), hormônios responsáveis pela homeostase do organismo. A redução na produção destes hormônios leva a um quadro de hipotireoidismo. O hipotireoidismo é uma desordem endócrina, mais prevalente no sexo feminino, e que pode causar uma série de alterações comportamentais e neurológicas, dentre elas a depressão. O flavonoide crisina, presente no maracujá do mato, própolis e mel de abelha, vem sendo estudado a alguns anos, sendo relatados seus efeitos antioxidantes, anticancerígenos, antihiperglicêmicos, ansiolíticos, e atualmente tem-se demonstrado sua atividade antidepressiva. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a ação terapêutica da crisina em modelo tipo depressivo induzido pelo hipotireoidismo em camundongos fêmeas C57BL/6 adultas. Primeiramernte os animais foram divididos em dois grandes grupos (n=20): controle e hipotireoidismo. O hipotireoidismo foi induzido por exposição contínua ao fármaco antitireoideo metimazol (MTZ) 0,1% + 0,475% de sucralose, durante 31 dias na água. No 31º dia foi retirado sangue da veia caudal e determinado os níveis de T3 e T4. Após os animais foram separados em quatro grupos (n=10): controle, hipotireoidismo, crisina, hipotireoidismo + crisina. A crisina (20mg/kg) foi administrada diariamente por 28 dias, via oral. Ao final do tratamento, os animais passaram por testes comportamentais de campo aberto (TCA), nado forçado (TNF) e suspensão de cauda (TSC), após realizou-se eutanásia nos animais, e coletou-se o sangue por punção cardíaca para análise bioquímica de T3 e T4, e retirou-se as estruturas cerebrais hipocampo e córtex pré frontal, para análises neuroquímicas de serotonina (5-HT), dopamina (DA), norepinefrina (NA). Nossos resultados demonstraram que os animais com hipotireoidismo apresentaram um aumento no tempo de imobilidade nos testes de TNF e TSC e a crisina foi capaz de reverter este tempo em ambos os testes. Demonstrou-se também que a crisina foi capaz de restaurar os níveis de neurotransmissores: 5-HT em ambas estruturas cerebrais e DA no hipocampo dos animais com hipotireoidismo, corroborando com os resultados dos testes comportamentais, nos quais o TNF está relacionado com o sistema serotoninérgico e o TSC com o sistema dopaminérgico. Em conclusão, nossos resultados demonstram pela primeira vez que a crisina é capaz de reverter o estado tipo depressivo induzido pelo hipotireoidismo, possivelmente por normalizar os níveis de 5-HT e DA. / The thyroid gland is one of the largest glands in the body, it produces triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), these hormones are responsible for body homeostasis. The reduction in the production of these hormones leads to hypothyroidism. The hypothyroidism is an endocrine disorder, more prevalent in females, which can cause a number of behavioral and neurological changes, including depression. The chrysin flavonoid present in the passion fruit of the bush, propolis and bee honey, has been studied for some years, being reported your antioxidant effect, anticancer, antihyperglycemic, anxiolytic, and currently your antidepressant activity was demonstrated. The objective of this study was to investigate the therapeutic action of chrysin in a model of like-depression induced by hypothyroidism in adult C57BL/6 female mice. First, the animals were divided into two groups (n=20): control and hypothyroidism. Hypothyroidism was induced by continuous exposure to the antithyroid drug methimazole (MTZ) 0.1% + 0.475% sucralose for 31 days on water. On the 31st day blood was drawn from the caudal vein and T3 and T4 levels were determined. After the animals were separated into four groups (n=10): control, hypothyroidism, chrysin, hypothyroidism + chrysin. The treatment of chrysin (20mg/kg) was administered daily for 28 days, orally. At the end of treatment the animals they passed for behavioral tests of open field test (OFT), forced swimming test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST), performed euthanasia in the animals, and collected the blood by cardiac puncture for biochemical analyze of T3 and T4, and the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex brain structures were removed for neurochemical analyzes of serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NA). Our results demonstrated that animals with hypothyroidism showed an increase in the time of immobility in the tests of FST and TST and the chrysin was able to reverse this time in both tests. It was also demonstrated that the chrysin was able to restore the levels of neurotransmitters: 5-HT in both structures cerebral and DA in the hippocampus of animals with hypothyroidism, corroborating with the results of behavioral tests, in which FST is related to the serotonergic system and the TST with the dopaminergic system. In conclusion, our results demonstrate for the first time that chrysin is able of reversing the depressive-induced state induced by hypothyroidism, possibly by normalizing 5-HT and DA levels.

A depressão é hoje a doença mental mais comum do mundo, afetando mais de 121 milhões de pessoas. Além disso, estima-se que em aproximadamente uma década ela se torne a 2º doença responsável pela perda prematura de vida entre todas as idades e sexos. Diferentes propostas foram feitas no intuito de se compreender os mecanismos pelos quais essa doença incide, contudo a etiologia dos transtornos depressivos ainda não é totalmente entendida. Existem consideráveis evidências de que a administração perinatal de lipopolissacarídeo (LPS), uma endotoxina bacteriana, promove efeitos persistentes no desenvolvimento e comportamento da prole de camundongos, os quais podem-se manter até a idade adulta. Ainda, esses eventos podem ter implicações evolucionárias ligadas a alterações transgeracionais. Tendo em vista que a ativação do sistema imune pode estar relacionada com os transtornos depressivos, o presente trabalho expos pré-natalmente ao LPS uma geração de camundongos avaliando os efeitos comportamentais dessa exposição em três gerações subsequentes levando-se em consideração os comportamentos depressivos e não depressivos de cada geração avaliada. Para isso camundongos fêmeas, após terem o comportamento selecionado pelo teste de suspensão da cauda (TSC), foram cruzadas com machos de mesmo comportamento recebendo 100g/kg de LPS ou solução salina no 15º dia de prenhez. Após os nascimentos, as gerações subsequentes tiveram o comportamento em questão avaliado pelo TSC, bem como a atividade geral em campo aberto. Além disso, a interação materno-filhote foi avaliada, uma vez que alterações na mesma poderiam contribuir para os efeitos do tratamento com a endotoxina. Ainda, foi-se realizado um desafio com LPS na geração filial 3, na qual o nível de citocinas e a expressão do comportamento doentio foram avaliadas. Os resultados mostraram que (i) a administração do LPS na geração parental não afetou o comportamento depressivo e não depressivo nas três gerações avaliadas, dado que animais com comportamento depressivo tiveram mais filhotes com o mesmo comportamento em todas as gerações. (ii) Foram observadas alterações no comportamento materno da geração parental, possivelmente ligadas a motivação materna desses animais. (iii) Foram encontradas alterações transgeracionais na atividade geral de camundongos machos e fêmeas das gerações filiais 1 e 2. Tais alterações foram mais x expressivas nos machos e, havendo diferenças entre o comportamento. Esses dados apontam que a exposição a endotoxina possui diferentes consequências de acordo com o comportamento e, (iv) os animais da geração filial 3 quando desafiados com a endotoxina apresentaram maior comportamento doentio e maiores níveis de citocinas. Esses dados apontam para um forte componente genético na transmissão do comportamento, além de, uma influencia epigenética na modulação do mesmo. Ainda, foi possível concluir que a inflamação gerada pela administração pré-natal do LPS atua de forma distinta entre os sexos, bem como o histórico comportamental, no caso, o comportamento depressivo e não depressivo estudados nesse trabalho / Depression disorders are to be considered the most common mental illness affecting more than 121 million people worldwide. It is estimated that approximately one decade it becomes the 2nd disease most responsible for premature loss of life of all ages and sexes. Different proposals to understand this disorders have been made in the past years, however its etiology it is still yet fully understood. There is considerable evidence that the administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a bacterial endotoxin, promotes persistent effects on development and behavior of the offspring of mice, which are maintained into adulthood. Still, these events may have evolutionary implications related to transgenerational changes. Given that activation of the immune system may be related to depressive disorders, this study aimed to expose a generation of mice to LPS evaluating the behavioral effects on three subsequent generations taking into account the depressive-like and non depressive-like behaviors assessed on each generation by the tail suspension test (TST). For this, female mice after behavior selected by the tail suspension test (TST) were crossed with males of the same behavior and exposed to 100g/kg of LPS or saline solution on day 15th of pregnancy. After births, the subsequent generations were also evaluated on the TST and in the open field for general activity. In addition, the maternal interaction was also evaluated, since changes on this parameter could contribute to the treatment effects of the endotoxin. Yet, has been performed a challenge with LPS in the generation branch 3, wherein the level of expression of cytokines and sickness behavior were evaluated. The results showed that (i) the administration of LPS in the parental generation did not affect the depressive-like behaviors on the three generations evaluated, since animals with depressive-like and non depressive-like behavior had more offspring with the same behavior in all generations. (ii) Changes were observed in maternal behavior of the parental generation which is possibly related to a change in motivational state of those animals. (iii) Transgenerational alterations were found in the general activity of male and female mice of the filial generation 1 and 2. These changes were more significant in males and differences between depressive-like e non depressive-like behaviors were also observed. Together, these data indicate that the exposure to endotoxin has different consequences according to the animal historical behavior and, xii finally, (iv) the animals of filial generation 3 when challenged with endotoxin had higher sickness behavior and higher levels of cytokines when evaluated in the open field test. These data point to a strong genetic component in the transmission of behavior and, besides, a possible influence of epigenetic mechanism of the same. Furthermore it was possible to concluded that inflammation state created by the prenatal LPS exposure acts differently according to the animal historical behavior, in this case, the depressive-like and non depressive-like behavior studied, and also acting differently according to the sexes

No description available.

Methamphetamine (MA) is a well-known, easily accessible and powerful psychostimulant, and its abuse has become a global problem. MA abuse affects millions of people worldwide and places an enormous burden on public healthcare resources. Documented consequences of MA abuse include cardiotoxic, neurotoxic and teratogenic effects, as well as long-term consequences of chronic abuse including affective disorders such as schizophrenia and major depressive disorder (MDD). MDD is a highly prevalent mood disorder in both adults and children, documented to contribute to approximately 850 000 suicides annually. This disorder is projected to become the 2nd leading disease of global burden by 2020, preceded only by ischemic heart disease. Depressive-like behaviour is documented as a symptom of chronic MA abuse and particularly during extensive MA withdrawal. Also, MA abuse during pregnancy is documented to cause neurodevelopmental changes that persist into later life. However, current understanding thereof is limited and warrants further investigation of the effects of early-life exposure to MA on outcome in adulthood, particularly in terms of mood disorders. The aim of the current study was to determine the effect of chronic exposure to MA on the depressive-like behaviour later in life in stress-sensitive (Flinders Sensitive Line) and control (Flinders Resistant Line) rats. Rats were exposed during one of the following natal day (ND) age groups: prenatal (ND-13 to ND+02), postnatal (ND+03 to ND+18), prepuberty (ND+19 to ND+34) or puberty (ND+35 to ND+50). These age groups represent different stages in neurodevelopment, as also seen in humans. For prenatal exposure, pregnant dams received 5 mg/kg daily subcutaneously (s.c.), and pups from postnatal, prepuberty and puberty age groups received an escalating dose regimen to simulate “binge-dosing” commonly seen in humans abusing MA. After MA exposure, rats were housed normally until behavioural testing on postnatal day 60 (ND+60), which included the novel object recognition test (NOR), open field test (OFT) and forced swim test (FST), measuring cognitive function, locomotor activity and depressive-like behaviour respectively. The FST data showed increased immobility behaviour of saline-treated FSL rats relative to that of FRL rats, in line with previous data validating FSL rats as a genetic rodent model of depression. Practically significant MA-induced increases in immobility behaviour were observed in all FSL and FRL treatment groups in the FST, reaching statistical significance in prenatally treated FRL rats, and in postnatally, prepuberty and puberty treated FSL rats. The data suggest that early-life MA exposure may alter neurodevelopment to predispose the rats to display depressive-like behaviour in early adulthood, and suggests that this detrimental effect of MA may be more expressed in stress-sensitive rats. Furthermore, all FSL groups plus prenatally and puberty treated FRL rats revealed practically and statistically significant decreases in swimming behaviour in the FST, whereas decreases in swimming behaviour in prepuberty treated FRL rats were practically significant but did not reach statistical significance. These data suggest that MA-induced depressive-like behaviour in FSL rats may be related to impaired serotonergic neurotransmission, and that this appears to be more robust in FSL rats. Climbing behaviour in the FST was generally not altered by early-life MA exposure, with a notable exception being a practically and statistically significant increase in puberty treated FRL rats. These data suggest that in general early-life MA exposure does not affect noradrenergic neurotransmission in early adulthood, except when normal rats were treated at puberty. The reason for the latter observation is not clear. The data from the NOR test revealed no discernible trends of MA-induced effects on memory and cognition, except for a small albeit practically significant increase in exploration time in prepuberty treated FRL rats and a practically and statistically significant decrease in exploration time in puberty-treated FRL rats. Lastly, locomotor activity in the OFT was mostly unaffected by MA treatments, except for practically significant decreases in locomotor activity in postnatally-and prepuberty-treated FRL rats and practically and statistically significant decreases in locomotor activity of prepuberty treated FSL rats. Altered locomotor activity is therefore not expected to explain any of the immobility results of the FST. In final conclusion, the study confirms that early-life MA exposure results in a depressogenic effect later in life in stress-sensitive (FSL) and control (FRL) rats, but appears to be more robust in stress-sensitive animals. Furthermore the data suggest that long-lasting MA-induced depressogenic effects may relate to impaired serotonergic neurotransmission. / MSc (Pharmacology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Methamphetamine (MA) is a well-known, easily accessible and powerful psychostimulant, and its abuse has become a global problem. MA abuse affects millions of people worldwide and places an enormous burden on public healthcare resources. Documented consequences of MA abuse include cardiotoxic, neurotoxic and teratogenic effects, as well as long-term consequences of chronic abuse including affective disorders such as schizophrenia and major depressive disorder (MDD). MDD is a highly prevalent mood disorder in both adults and children, documented to contribute to approximately 850 000 suicides annually. This disorder is projected to become the 2nd leading disease of global burden by 2020, preceded only by ischemic heart disease. Depressive-like behaviour is documented as a symptom of chronic MA abuse and particularly during extensive MA withdrawal. Also, MA abuse during pregnancy is documented to cause neurodevelopmental changes that persist into later life. However, current understanding thereof is limited and warrants further investigation of the effects of early-life exposure to MA on outcome in adulthood, particularly in terms of mood disorders. The aim of the current study was to determine the effect of chronic exposure to MA on the depressive-like behaviour later in life in stress-sensitive (Flinders Sensitive Line) and control (Flinders Resistant Line) rats. Rats were exposed during one of the following natal day (ND) age groups: prenatal (ND-13 to ND+02), postnatal (ND+03 to ND+18), prepuberty (ND+19 to ND+34) or puberty (ND+35 to ND+50). These age groups represent different stages in neurodevelopment, as also seen in humans. For prenatal exposure, pregnant dams received 5 mg/kg daily subcutaneously (s.c.), and pups from postnatal, prepuberty and puberty age groups received an escalating dose regimen to simulate “binge-dosing” commonly seen in humans abusing MA. After MA exposure, rats were housed normally until behavioural testing on postnatal day 60 (ND+60), which included the novel object recognition test (NOR), open field test (OFT) and forced swim test (FST), measuring cognitive function, locomotor activity and depressive-like behaviour respectively. The FST data showed increased immobility behaviour of saline-treated FSL rats relative to that of FRL rats, in line with previous data validating FSL rats as a genetic rodent model of depression. Practically significant MA-induced increases in immobility behaviour were observed in all FSL and FRL treatment groups in the FST, reaching statistical significance in prenatally treated FRL rats, and in postnatally, prepuberty and puberty treated FSL rats. The data suggest that early-life MA exposure may alter neurodevelopment to predispose the rats to display depressive-like behaviour in early adulthood, and suggests that this detrimental effect of MA may be more expressed in stress-sensitive rats. Furthermore, all FSL groups plus prenatally and puberty treated FRL rats revealed practically and statistically significant decreases in swimming behaviour in the FST, whereas decreases in swimming behaviour in prepuberty treated FRL rats were practically significant but did not reach statistical significance. These data suggest that MA-induced depressive-like behaviour in FSL rats may be related to impaired serotonergic neurotransmission, and that this appears to be more robust in FSL rats. Climbing behaviour in the FST was generally not altered by early-life MA exposure, with a notable exception being a practically and statistically significant increase in puberty treated FRL rats. These data suggest that in general early-life MA exposure does not affect noradrenergic neurotransmission in early adulthood, except when normal rats were treated at puberty. The reason for the latter observation is not clear. The data from the NOR test revealed no discernible trends of MA-induced effects on memory and cognition, except for a small albeit practically significant increase in exploration time in prepuberty treated FRL rats and a practically and statistically significant decrease in exploration time in puberty-treated FRL rats. Lastly, locomotor activity in the OFT was mostly unaffected by MA treatments, except for practically significant decreases in locomotor activity in postnatally-and prepuberty-treated FRL rats and practically and statistically significant decreases in locomotor activity of prepuberty treated FSL rats. Altered locomotor activity is therefore not expected to explain any of the immobility results of the FST. In final conclusion, the study confirms that early-life MA exposure results in a depressogenic effect later in life in stress-sensitive (FSL) and control (FRL) rats, but appears to be more robust in stress-sensitive animals. Furthermore the data suggest that long-lasting MA-induced depressogenic effects may relate to impaired serotonergic neurotransmission. / MSc (Pharmacology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

No description available.

Fluoxetine and escitalopram are the only antidepressants approved by the Food and Drug Administration of the United States of America (FDA) for treatment of major depression in children and adolescents. Both drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). In recent years there has been a growing concern over the long-term developmental effects of early-life exposure to SSRIs. The current study employed male Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) rats, a well described and validated translational model of depression, to investigate the long term effects of pre-pubertal fluoxetine exposure. First we examined the effect of such early-life exposure on the development of depressive-like behaviour, locomotor activity and anxiety-like behaviour as manifested in early adulthood. Next, the current study investigated the effect of pre-pubertal fluoxetine exposure on the acute monoaminergic stress response, as displayed later in life. Animals received either saline (vehicle control), or 10 mg/kg/day fluoxetine from postnatal day (ND+) 21 to ND+34 (pre-puberty). The treatment period was chosen to coincide with a developmental phase where the serotonergic system’s neurodevelopment had been completed, yet the noradrenergic and dopaminergic systems had not, a scenario comparable to neurodevelopment in human adolescents. Both behavioural and in vivo intra-cerebral microdialysis experiments were conducted after ND+60 (early adulthood). On ND+60 rats allocated to behavioural experiments were evaluated for depressive-like behaviour in the forced swim test (FST), locomotor activity in the open field test (OFT), and anxiety-like behaviour in the OFT. Corticosterone concentrations were shown to be significantly higher in male FSL rats exposed to a 10 minute forced swim stress when compared to male FSL rats not exposed to a forced swim stress on ND+60. In the microdialysis experiments the rats were exposed to an acute 10 minute forced swim stress and the concentrations of the monoamines and their metabolites were measured before, during, and after the acute stressor. Relative to saline-treated (control) rats, fluoxetine-treated FSL rats did not show long-term changes in immobility in the FST (i.e. no anti-depressant-like activity) on ND+60. Like-wise anxiety-like behaviour in the OFT did not change. However, a significant decrease in locomotor activity was observed in fluoxetine-treated FSL rats compared to saline-treated (control) rats. These data suggest that a long-lasting anti-depressant-like effect of fluoxetine may be masked by the effect on locomotor activity. With measurements from the microdialysis experiments a significant attenuation of the noradrenergic stress response was observed in fluoxetine-treated rats compared to saline controls. A similar picture was observed for 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (5-HIAA), a metabolite of serotonin (5-HT), although the latter was not statistically significant. At baseline, before the stressor, significant increase in dopamine (DA) levels were observed in fluoxetine treated rats when compared to saline controls, suggesting that enhanced dopamine neurotransmission may comprise a long-term effect of pre-pubertal fluoxetine treatment. There were no discernible differences in homovanilllic acid (HVA) concentrations between fluoxetine-treated rats and saline controls. In conclusion significant developmental effects of pre-pubertal fluoxetine exposure were observed later in life and these findings warrant further investigation. / MPharm (Pharmacology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Methamphetamine (METH) abuse has become a fast growing drug problem that has developed into a global epidemic. In fact, METH is one of the most commonly abused substances with an estimated 35 million abusers worldwide and is said to be the second most popular illicit drug. The Western Province of South Africa has seen a dramatic increase in drug abuse in recent years where METH is the primary or secondary drug of abuse. Interestingly, more than 50% of these individuals are under the age of 20 years. The longer duration of euphoric effects of METH has attracted many users away from cocaine in favour of METH. In addition to the rapid euphoric effect of METH, the direct short-term effects include arousal, reduced fatigue, an increase in blood pressure, reduced appetite as well as sustained attention. Chronic METH abuse may result in debilitating and long-lasting effects that includes mood disorders such as depression. Studies suggest a strong relationship between exposure to adverse environmental factors early in life and the later development of a neuropsychiatric disorder, such as depression. However, these severe consequences do not seem to invoke cessation of the drug. The euphoric and addictive properties of METH causes users to abuse the drug with an increase in frequency and dose, even though it might not have been their original intention. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the effect of early-life administration of METH to stress-sensitive (Flinders Sensitive Line - FSL) and control (Flinders Resistant Line - FRL) rats on depressive-like behaviour and regional brain monoamine levels later in life. The study implemented a sixteen-day period for administration of METH or a vehicle control from postnatal day 19 (PnD19) to postnatal day 34 (PnD34). The latter developmental stage corresponds to pre-adolescence in the rat when neurological development are similar to that seen in human adolescents, and represents the stage when drug abuse is most common in humans. Chronic dosing of METH and saline was performed twice daily at 09:00 and at 15:00. The animals received a sub-cutaneous (SC) escalating dose regimen of METH during the 16 day period (mimicking binging behaviour in humans), with every dose escalating in increments of 0.2 mg/kg from 0.2 mg/kg to 6.0 mg/kg. The study then investigated whether early-life administration of METH would cause depressive-like behaviours directly after the injection period (immediate drug effects before withdrawal on PnD35) or later in life (after the withdrawal period in early adulthood on PnD60). The behavioural effects were assessed in a battery of tests and thereafter the rats were sacrificed and the frontal cortex removed and snap frozen for later analyses of altered neurochemistry. The study demonstrated that chronic METH treatment during pre-adolescence induces significant behavioural changes related to depression in humans directly after the injection period (PnD35) and later in life (PnD60). The animals displayed antidepressant-like behaviour in the forced swim test (FST) before withdrawal, yet a depressogenic effect was observed 25 days post-withdrawal. This effect also seems to be additive to the congenital depressive-like phenotype of FSL rats, suggesting a role for genetic susceptibility. This observation would be in line with the two-hit hypothesis of depression, suggesting that the manifestation of depression will result when a genetic predisposition is followed by an environmental stressor (i.e. METH) later in life. The data suggests a working hypothesis that individuals that already have a predisposition to depression may be more susceptible to developing depression when abusing METH. The fact that the FSL control rats were more immobile than FRL control rats also confirmed the face validity of the FSL genetic rat model of depression. Locomotor activity assessment indicated that METH treatment decreased locomotor activity in FSL and FRL rats compared to their vehicle controls on PnD35 but not on PnD60. It is important to note that the effects observed in locomotor activity could not have contributed to the immobility observed in the FST, confirming that the immobility in the FST indeed reflects psychomotor and not locomotor effects. The study also demonstrated that METH significantly lowers social interaction behaviour in both FRL and FSL rats, both immediately following drug treatment (PnD35) and after withdrawal (PnD60). It is therefore clear that this effect of METH is long-lasting, putatively related to neurodevelopmental effects. In addition, the rats investigated the familiar object for a greater amount of time in the novel object recognition test (nORT) on PnD35 and PnD60 and may be the result of loss of recognition memory for the familiar object. This data confirms that METH results in cognitive memory deficits probably due to sustained adverse neurodevelopmental effects. Neurochemical analyses of the frontal cortex indicated decreased serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) levels on PnD35. METH is widely recognised for its pro-inflammatory effects, while the reduced 5-HT levels observed may have been the result of an increase in circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines. Neurochemical analyses provided thought-provoking data concerning the role of the permissive hypotheses of depression, indicating that dopamine (DA) is most likely not responsible for the behavioural effects observed, at least under the current study conditions, whereas 5-HT is decidedly more involved than expected. The data also suggest that depletion in NE plays a role in the development of depressive-like behaviours following METH exposure. Based on these findings, we propose that disturbances in 5-HT and NE are a crucial mechanism in how METH abuse may precipitate or worsen depressive-like symptoms in individuals who abuse METH. It should be noted that this study does not discard the role of DA in the development of depression after METH exposure, although under the current study conditions it appears that DA does not play a central role. The current study demonstrated that pre-adolescent exposure to METH can reproduce most of the behavioural changes seen in depressed individuals, and that these behavioural data can be used to identify causal neurochemical factors. Environmental stressors such as METH abuse should be regarded as an additional diagnostic criterion and is relevant to an accumulative risk factor hypothesis. Furthermore, although further study is required, the data suggests that early-life exposure to METH may predispose an individual to mood disorders and behavioural abnormalities later in life. / MSc (Pharmacology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Fluoxetine and escitalopram are the only antidepressants approved by the Food and Drug Administration of the United States of America (FDA) for treatment of major depression in children and adolescents. Both drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). In recent years there has been a growing concern over the long-term developmental effects of early-life exposure to SSRIs. The current study employed male Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) rats, a well described and validated translational model of depression, to investigate the long term effects of pre-pubertal fluoxetine exposure. First we examined the effect of such early-life exposure on the development of depressive-like behaviour, locomotor activity and anxiety-like behaviour as manifested in early adulthood. Next, the current study investigated the effect of pre-pubertal fluoxetine exposure on the acute monoaminergic stress response, as displayed later in life. Animals received either saline (vehicle control), or 10 mg/kg/day fluoxetine from postnatal day (ND+) 21 to ND+34 (pre-puberty). The treatment period was chosen to coincide with a developmental phase where the serotonergic system’s neurodevelopment had been completed, yet the noradrenergic and dopaminergic systems had not, a scenario comparable to neurodevelopment in human adolescents. Both behavioural and in vivo intra-cerebral microdialysis experiments were conducted after ND+60 (early adulthood). On ND+60 rats allocated to behavioural experiments were evaluated for depressive-like behaviour in the forced swim test (FST), locomotor activity in the open field test (OFT), and anxiety-like behaviour in the OFT. Corticosterone concentrations were shown to be significantly higher in male FSL rats exposed to a 10 minute forced swim stress when compared to male FSL rats not exposed to a forced swim stress on ND+60. In the microdialysis experiments the rats were exposed to an acute 10 minute forced swim stress and the concentrations of the monoamines and their metabolites were measured before, during, and after the acute stressor. Relative to saline-treated (control) rats, fluoxetine-treated FSL rats did not show long-term changes in immobility in the FST (i.e. no anti-depressant-like activity) on ND+60. Like-wise anxiety-like behaviour in the OFT did not change. However, a significant decrease in locomotor activity was observed in fluoxetine-treated FSL rats compared to saline-treated (control) rats. These data suggest that a long-lasting anti-depressant-like effect of fluoxetine may be masked by the effect on locomotor activity. With measurements from the microdialysis experiments a significant attenuation of the noradrenergic stress response was observed in fluoxetine-treated rats compared to saline controls. A similar picture was observed for 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (5-HIAA), a metabolite of serotonin (5-HT), although the latter was not statistically significant. At baseline, before the stressor, significant increase in dopamine (DA) levels were observed in fluoxetine treated rats when compared to saline controls, suggesting that enhanced dopamine neurotransmission may comprise a long-term effect of pre-pubertal fluoxetine treatment. There were no discernible differences in homovanilllic acid (HVA) concentrations between fluoxetine-treated rats and saline controls. In conclusion significant developmental effects of pre-pubertal fluoxetine exposure were observed later in life and these findings warrant further investigation. / MPharm (Pharmacology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015