This thesis consists of four self-contained essays at the nexus of applied microeconomics, behavioural economics, and environmental economics. In the essays of the thesis, I use field experiments and econometric tools to examine the impact of monetary and non monetary incentives for behavioural change during resource scarcity. I use methods of eliciting intrinsic motivations and then empirically test theories on the interaction of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives. Specifically I analyse whether and which incentives undermine, support, or are independent of existing preferences, and whether incentives change behaviour. The first two essays analyse two distinct types of conservation policy in Brazil: i) direct payments from the state of São Paulo to small landholders living in vulnerable ecosystems conditional on the landholders conserving their land; and, ii) federal policy to regulate, monitor and enforce land use in the Brazilian Amazon through conservation zoning and creation of a public list of municipalities with high rates of deforestation (“priority municipalities”) to increase visibility and thus accountability. The first essay¹ uses a field experiment in Brazil to test if monetary incentives to conserve land on private property in vulnerable ecosystems - “Payments for Environmental Services” (PES) - crowd out demand for a conservation program. Landholders are less likely to accept the higher monetary offers to conserve compared to the lowest offers. Given that the rational choice model does not explain the role of incentives in shaping demand for PES, we then look at the interaction of the randomised incentive offers and individuals' initial intrinsic motivations. We construct methods to elicit social preferences in order to analyse this interaction. We find that, while high monetary incentives crowd in demand of progovernment landholders, they crowd out demand of pro-environment (henceforth “proenvironment”) and prosocial landholders. The second essay² combines satellite data on deforestation with data on the location and timing of the conservation zones in Brazil to estimate the effect of conservation zoning on deforestation in the period 2004-2010. We provide spatial regression discontinuity estimates and difference-in-difference estimates to show that the policy does not explain the large reduction in deforestation rates during this period. We provide evidence that zones reduce deforestation in municipalities put on a federal government “shame” list for high deforestation rates. The last two essays³ test behavioural interventions to decrease residential water consumption across the City of Cape Town in South Africa as complements to tariff increases and water restrictions during a severe water crisis. Using inserts in monthly municipal bills, we test multiple behavioural messages in a randomised control trial on the full population of free standing domestic households (400 000+). The treatments are classified into five groups: information provision and increased salience on the tariff structure, financial savings, appeals to the public good, social comparison, and social recognition. By using a number of different framings, the third essay focuses on identifying which incentives best motivate individuals of different income levels to reduce their consumption. We find that lower income households respond only to financial incentives, whereas the higher income households respond only to social incentives and appeals to their intrinsic motivation. In the final essay, we further explore the drivers behind the effect of social recognition on pro-environmental behaviour (henceforth “proenvironment behaviour”). According to Bénabou and Tirole (2006), the visibility of doing-good may create doubt to others as to the true motive of the individual and result in a crowding out of prosocial behaviour. We use three treatments within the larger randomised control trial to disentangle intrinsic motivation, extrinsic incentives, and image motivation. We exogenously vary the visibility of the social recognition treatments to test whether i) social recognition incentives crowd out intrinsic motivation and, ii) whether social recognition increases the noise of the prosocial signal and ultimately crowds out cooperation. We find, on average, using image motivation as an extrinsic incentive crowds in cooperation. Social recognition with an explicit opt-out has, on average, no effect on consumption. Thus, in our setting, the signal of social recognition for prosocial behaviour is strong enough to elicit cooperation. In application to public policy, our findings suggest public recognition can be used as an adjunct to more traditional demand side management tools, such as water restrictions and tariff increases to achieve additional conservation in the higher income households. To our knowledge, this empirical analysis has not been executed elsewhere and contributes both to the academic literature as well as policy recommendations for alternatives to traditional demand side management tools during times of resource scarcity. ¹Co-authors: Florence Kondylis, Development Research Group, World Bank; Astrid Zwager, Development Research Group, World Bank. ²Co-authors: Liana O. Anderson, National Center for Monitoring and EarlyWarning of Natural Disasters (CEMADEN); Torfinn Harding, Department of Economics, NHH Norwegian School of Economics, and University of Stavanger; Karlygash Kuralbayeva, Grantham Research Institute, LSE; Andre Lima, Department of Geographical Sciences, University of Maryland. ³Co-authors: Kerri Brick, Environmental Policy Research Unit (EPRU), University of Cape Town; Martine Visser, School of Economics, University of Cape Town.

This dissertation presents the results of an interdisciplinary environmental study that focuses on the formation of environmental discourse at the grassroots level of society. Case studies on the ‘Coal Capitals' in Guizhou of China and Jharkhand of India were conducted in order to examine the question: why do people appear to react in different ways when encountering environmental problems, such as those caused by mining? This thesis investigates how the environment – and the participation space for discussing it – has been socio-culturally, historically and politically defined in the two countries. It is one of the few initiatives to have assessed environmental development issues based on comparative literature reviews and empirical fieldwork in coal villages in China and India. It has critically examined the literature related to the two locations studied by encompassing environmental governance, political discourses and historical studies about environmental development, media productions and daily life conversations about the environment. By examining the representations of environmentalism in the Chinese and Indian cases, this study deals with different dynamics of discourse construction in the two societies – including the power of the state, the influences of media and social elites, and the emergence of grassroots movements. The investigation of the interactions between these dynamics enhances our understanding of, on the one hand, the social settings of the two Coal Capitals in the two countries, and, on the other hand, the relationship between nature and the people, especially those with limited social and economic resources. By bringing in the voices of the marginalised social groups, this thesis adds to a growing body of research on the diversity of environmentalism within developing countries. In particular, the analysis helps explain how popular environmentalism and the concept of environmental participation in India and China have become recognised differently, in the discussions created by researchers and media commentators in conjunction with actors with power in the state machinery.

It is widely acknowledged that existing low carbon technologies offer substantial means to reduce the carbon intensity of existing lifestyles. Yet the problem is not simply one of diffusion: commercially developed technologies need to be made to work in diverse local contexts of use. They need to be locally embedded. I approach the study of ‘local embedding' through a particular actor, community-led energy initiatives and the broad research question: how are community-led energy initiatives seeking to integrate sustainable technologies into local contexts of use? I explore the agency of community activists to locally embed technologies and the context dynamics influencing how their projects develop. In doing so, I identify a gap in current knowledge between the social embedding of technology by wider society (as conceptualised by sustainability transitions research) and the appropriation of technology by users (as conceptualised by domestication studies) and develop the concept of local embedding as a distinct conceptual contribution. Having identified community initiatives as performing a largely intermediary role I draw on insights from research on innovation intermediaries to understand their agency. A framework is constructed through building blocks from these approaches, then tested and refined through four comparative case studies on community attempts at local embedding. The research contributes a novel process model on community-based intermediation for local embedding. I identify an ideal-typical sequence to key community-based intermediary processes and identify a variety of context dynamics influencing project development. As such I contribute to current discussions within (a) sustainability transitions research, about actors and their agency, and (b) innovation intermediaries research, identifying an under-studied intermediary working at the user-end of innovation processes and refine an existing framework on key intermediary processes.

This thesis consists of three stand-alone papers. It examines the economic and political effects of natural resources in Africa. In the first paper, we investigate the effect of mining activity on subnational economic development by using satellite data on night lights as a measure of economic development. We find that mineral production and discovery improves local economy. However, we do not observe (strong) general equilibrium effect beyond the confines of a district. In the second paper, we test the link between natural resources and multiethnic power sharing coalitions in Africa. We find that resource discoveries and rising commodity prices increase the probability of representation at the executive branches of government. Our finding supports the idea that resource discoveries and rising commodity prices provide rulers with more revenues to expand the state cabinet sizes; hence they build broader multi-ethnic coalitions. In the third paper, we investigate the association between natural resources and intra-state local armed conflict in Africa. We find that natural resource discoveries do not trigger armed conflict in Africa at the local level. Consistent with the finding in the first paper (positive economic effect) and second paper (positive political effect), resource discovery appears to reduce the likelihood of armed conflict by increasing the opportunity cost of joining armed rebellion.

This thesis investigates the design, implementation and impacts of the market-smart input subsidy (NAIVS) in Tanzania's Ruvuma Region. The research uses a mixed-methods approach, where quantitative data analysis is complemented by qualitative research. Using four waves of household panel data, I found that voucher receipt had no statistically significant impact on maize yields, income poverty or the household assets owned by recipient households. The qualitative research finds that this was due to flaws in NAIVS's design and in its implementation. Weak institutional capacity was found in voucher management, especially at the lower level of government: a substantial number of vouchers went missing; inputs and vouchers were delivered late most years; and vouchers were resold by farmers. Due to an increase in real input prices, the ‘top-up' payment required for voucher use was increased, which made it difficult for poor farmers to access the subsidy. In practice, the input vouchers were obtained by elites: households with elected positions in the villages; wealthier households; and those households who were already using improved inputs prior to NAIVS. It contributed to national food security; however, because of the spill-over effects which brought a higher increase ratio in input use among non-recipient than recipient households, the observed impact on maize yields cannot be attributed to NAIVS. Because of the leakage to wealthier farmers and fraud, it did not ensure household food security for poor farmers. The thesis reveals that studies of input subsidy programmes require not only economic analysis but also social and political analysis. Such studies would require the use of a new theory of change, which uses economic analysis but places social and political analysis at the forefront, and in which a mixed-methods approach must be used.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Idaho, 2006. / Abstract. "April 2006." Includes bibliographical references. Also available online in PDF format.

Thesis (MA.(Political science))-University of Pretoria, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references.

Set in 2000, with a completion date of 2015, the deadline for the Millennium Development Goals is approaching, at which time a new global development infrastructure will become operational. Unsurprisingly, the discussions on goals, topics, priorities and monitoring and evaluation are gaining momentum. But this is a critical juncture. Over a decade of development programming offers a unique opportunity to reflect on its structure, function and purpose in a contemporary global context. This article examines the topic from an analytical health perspective and identifies universal health equity as an operational and analytical priority to encourage attention to the root causes of unnecessary and unfair illness and disease from the perspectives of those for whom the issues have most direct relevance.

Since its introduction into mainstream society two decades ago, ecotourism has become an international phenomenon. Claimed by its proponents to endorse ecologically, socially, and economically sustainable travel to natural areas, ecotourism is in many ways the conceptual fusion of conservation and development. Yet, despite the optimism often associated with the phenomenon, the question of the degree to which it actually contributes to development, however defined, has become a controversial issue. Theorists and practitioners hold a variety of opinions of ecotourism, ranging from cautious optimism (Honey 2008; Ross & Wall 1999) to outright rejection (Carrier & Macleod 2005; Wheeller 2003). Unfortunately, research shows that the poorest of the poor generally bear the burden of ecotourism initiatives without receiving an equitable share of the associated benefits (Stem et al. 2003; Western & Wright 1994). In response, a sustainable livelihoods approach is proposed as a practical means of understanding the complex livelihood strategies employed by indigenous populations. While tourism research has often focused on the economic impacts of ecotourism initiatives, current livelihoods discourse suggests that the poor draw on a wide range of assets and incorporate a variety of livelihood strategies, in their pursuit of economic gain (Ashley 2002; Ashley et al. 2001; Bebbington 1999; Bennett et al. 1999; Zoomers 1999). This discourse is especially timely for pastoral populations living adjacent to protected areas in Kenya. Recent changes in government policy have promoted the subdivision of land for private ownership (Homewood et al. 2009; Leserogol 2005; Lamprey & Reid 2004), an unexpected transformation that has led to the adoption of ecotourism as a sustainable livelihood strategy. Informed by development theory, tourism theory, and property rights theory, the purpose of this research was to examine the effect of different land tenure regimes on the distribution of benefits accrued from various ecotourism initiatives, and how those benefits impact the livelihoods of the pastoral Maasai living on the periphery of the Maasai Mara National Reserve. Culturally-appropriate, participatory research methods were combined with the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to document an indigenous perspective on livelihood sustainability. By adapting the conceptual framework to include cultural and historical capital, it served as a lens for viewing and identifying the culturally embedded meaning associated with the recent privatisation of Maasai property. These changes include: significant increases in income generated from ecotourism initiatives, an increased desire to cultivate land, an enhanced capacity for participating in the decision-making process, and greater diversification in local livelihood strategies. However, the empirical evidence also demonstrated that changing property regimes have led to the increased sedentarisation of these semi-nomadic people, resulting in modifications to their pastoral culture, reductions in their herd sizes, and the occasional obstruction of wildlife migratory patterns through the construction of permanent fences.

Since the industrial revolution, technological developments and increased population have caused environmental damages such as lavish use of sources, pollution increased waste areas, poisoned wastes, harmless gasses, decreased green areas, global warming and climate change, harming of the ozone layer, decreased forests areas and natural sources. Appearance of the term of Global Warming makes the humanity to revise their facilities in all fields. To protect the nature and architectural environment, firstly, green architecture, ecological architecture and then sustainability occurred. This term has been proposed not to be a new term but a response to environmental disturbances caused by human activities and it is re-conceptualization of architecture. Sustainable architecture or sustainability is lot more extensive than ecological and green architecture. It contains the imbalance between environmental problems which is natural environment and consumption that occurred all around the world. An important part of sustainability debate focused on urban planning and design for more sustainable forms and patterns. In particular it is discussed that planning and design of urban areas have a major effect on transport and therefore can help reduce car usage, emissions, global warming and climate change. There are many planning and design approaches and movement that introduce certain criteria and strategies to prevent car dependency and encourage people to use public transportation and walking. To achieve sustainable transport, there should be design for walkable and easy accessible areas. Planning movements, such as New Urbanism and Transit Oriented Development, particularly came to the forefront of planning and influenced planning approaches. However, when review the literature, it is seen that planning movements, such as New Urbanism and Transit Oriented Development originated and were implemented mostly in West Europeean and North American Cities. The purpose of this study is to find out whether all those criteria, principles and strategies are also relevant planning approaches for more non-western cities like Baku which has a very different planning background and therefore possibly different urban form and tranmsport issues. In order to answer the abovementioned question, planning and design approaches in the literatureand and in these recent planning movements were studied and a check list was formed which indicate planning and design approaches that can help attain a more sustainable transport outcome. The checklist was then applied to the case of Baku.