Given growing concerns regarding the chocolate sector's long-term future, ever more private-sector, public-sector and civil-society stakeholders have become involved in initiatives aiming to make cocoa production more 'sustainable'. However, despite the omnipresent term, stakeholders' understandings of associated environmental, commercial and socio-economic priorities diverge: while transforming cocoa into a more attractive livelihood for farmers is paramount for some, others prioritise links to global environmental challenges. A third dimension encompasses commercial concerns related to securing supply, an increasing qualm given projected cocoa shortages and ever-rising concentration in the marketplace. This research argues there are considerable tensions between different stakeholders' commercial, socio-economic and environmental priorities in cocoa sustainability initiatives especially in light of the sector's intensifying challenges. Further tensions emerge between underlying drivers and representations, as public-facing communication continues to emphasise altruism rather than commercial necessity, locating engagements in 'nice-to-have' rather than 'business imperative' territory. Based on documentary analysis, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and participant observation, this thesis aims to capture how cocoa-sector changes have driven shifts in stakeholder priorities and representations, incorporating voices from across the initiatives ranging from cocoa producers to chocolate consumers. Utilising a modified global production networks lens to represent the full spectrum of stakeholders involved, the research maps three cocoa sustainability initiatives incorporating conservation or carbon measures in terms of power and embeddedness, stakeholder drivers and representations. While identifying tensions, it also argues that acknowledging divergent understandings of the polysemic 'sustainability' concept constitutes an opportunity for a much-needed redressing of power and embeddedness asymmetries to address systemic issues threatening the sector's future. However, the thesis also observes that despite protestations of partnership, few actors are willing to contemplate the systemic changes in favour of more equitable treatment and power distribution which would be required to safeguard the sector's long-term viability. This thesis's contributions include its unprecedented critical exploration of the diverging socio-economic, commercial and environmental drivers which diverse stakeholders associate with cocoa sustainability, the meanings they create towards the public, and the link to underlying power and embeddedness structures. These analytical foci have proved instrumental in unpacking emerging tensions, which are likely to grow more marked as cocoa shortages become more acute and understandings of sustainability continue to diverge.

This research examines the function of culture and power in Development praxis, as defined by Post-Development theory, the Participation approach to Development, and Development workers in Cambodia and the Philippines. Practitioner perspectives have been gathered by means of informal interviews conducted in Cambodia and the Philippines. The primary inquiry of this thesis is whether Development is culturally destructive, whether the current paradigm can deliver effective results, and what effect power relations have on these outcomes. The research approaches Development as a contact zone, in which Southern Development workers function as border crossers, moving between the cultures of funders and local communities as they work to implement Development projects and programs. This affords practitioners privileged insight into the cultural negotiations of this contact, making their input critical to this inquiry. Their input is placed in the context of Post-Development theorists� assertion that Development is a culturally destructive discourse, and the proposal by other theorists that a participatory approach to Development adequately addresses Post-Development�s key concerns. Participation addresses issues of power and context in Development practice from a different perspective from the Post-Development theorists, and outlines a series of strategies designed to overcome well-recognised limitations of Development practice. Practitioner responses are grouped into three discussions, addressing their overall perspective on Development and Participation, their attitudes to cultural change and Development�s role within that, and their experience of power in Development funding relationships. Their responses were overwhelmingly supportive of participatory approaches to Development, and advocated a stronger role for the grassroots organisations that are pivotal to the Post-Development approach. Different attitudes to cultural change were expressed by practitioners in the two countries, however they consistently named Development as a source of positive cultural change, naming this as a key aim of their work. Finally, practitioners were critical of their relationships with funding organisations, which they felt were unduly controlled by the funders. This research concludes that participatory Development fosters cultural liberty by reinforcing collaborative cultural traits and strengthening communities to make choices about culture. While Post-Development provides important critiques of Development, its proposed alternative of turning to the grassroots is not supported by practitioners, who seek ongoing relationships with Northern organisations and individuals. In particular, practitioners desire a model of funding relationship that reflects their own practice, by conforming to the paradigm of people that underpins the participatory approach to Development. This thesis contributes to Development debates by presenting Southern perspectives that contrast with Post-Development, and by proposing a framework that can underpin further development of funding partnerships. Furthermore, it demonstrates that practitioners believe that Development is a reinforcing factor at a time when cultures are exposed to increasingly diverse cultural influences.

The assemblage of competing development programs I call an "NGOscape", effective in Bangladesh's forest spaces, is a window into understanding both local and extra-local imaginings of the future of these spaces. By tracing the close interaction of three of the most prominent forces in operation in Bangladesh's forest NGOscapes: indigeneity, environmentalism, and entrepreneurialism, I discuss how the government and NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) work to increase management and securitization of these forces. Through ethnography and close analysis of the minority Mandi community, and NGOs in the capital city of Dhaka and in rural Modhupur, Tangail, I interpret Modhupur as a vital and telling site for examining the close interdependence of these three themes. Adivasi ("aboriginal") folklorization and representation is deployed by Mandi leaders and NGOs, and provides a space for Mandi internal debates about authenticity, representation, modernity, and the way forward. Neoliberal imaginings centered on transforming Mandi livelihoods into something more appropriately modern are realized on the ground, evidenced by Alternative Income Generation (AIG) programs that push for market integration, and attempt to utilize claims about adivasi indigeneity to advance a security-management paradigm, national stability, and civic responsibility. Young activists and environmentalists based in Dhaka are crucial forces in promoting the broader development and NGO agenda, utilizing the themes of environmental responsibility and progressive conservation programs. Additionally, development agendas are complicated by other factors, such as eco-tourism trends that seek to indoctrinate the Mandi and other rural actors into acceptable and responsible ways of managing environment, while also relying on national pride. These competing forces rely on national pride and social shaming to transform rural Bangladeshis from being somehow "backward" into more desirable, modern subjects. Yet severe distrust within a larger "climate of suspicion," between adivasi leaders, activists, and the state ultimately disrupt the fluidity of development practices at the local level. The result places various actors in precarious positions, left to interpret and be interpreted into development, NGO, and state-based objectives. / text

This research project examines the successes and challenges of processes involved in the implementation of the Integrated Quality Management System (IQMS) in six secondary schools. The focus of this study is limited to six secondary schools in the Umgungundlovu District in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The research seeks to critically trace the evolution of the IQMS as a policy strategy for the implementation of teacher appraisal in South African schools. The research also explores appraisal measures in place prior to the introduction of the IQMS in schools. The analytical framework uses forward and backward mapping as analytical tools to guide the data analysis. The methodology is a case study approach with qualitative interviews with principals, heads of departments and post-level one educators. The findings indicate that while progressing adequately, there are a number of areas of concern with the implementation of IQMS. The report makes several recommendations regarding these. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

The relationship between civil society organisations and donors in South Africa is dynamic, and takes different forms over time. This is attributed to a number of factors, including political landscape, domestic government policies and donor policies. These factors then affect the manner in which donors relate to civil society organisations and disburse development project funds. Prior to 1994 civil society organisations enjoyed abundant financial support from foreign donors, mainly due to the illegitimacy of the apartheid government policies and humanitarian crisis. This situation changed after the election of democratic government in 1994, as most of the donor funds were channelled through the government to support its policies and programmes, and partly because of bilateral agreements with some of the developed countries across the world. In this study the impact of donor policies, processes, and management systems on the work of civil society organisations was explored, using the United Sates Agency for International Development (USAID) South Africa, Nelson Mandela Children's Fund (NMCF) and Sibambisene partnership. Themes explored included policies, processes, management systems and tools, partnership and power relations. The research methodology used included semi-structured interviews, documentary analysis, emailed questionnaires and telephone discussions. Theories on power, policy management frameworks, and partnership were reviewed, drawing on, for example, the views from the views of Lukes (1974), Parsons (1995), Brinkerhof & Cosby (2002), Howell & Pearce (2002) and Nchabeng (2001). The results of the study highlighted a number of issues. Firstly that there is unequal power within the partnership relationship and donor agencies, and this is mainly caused by the fact that donors control policies, management processes and systems, as well as the disbursement of project funds. Secondly, civil society organisations, particularly NGOs, are dependant on their donors, and as a result prioritise their programmes at the expense of communities they serve. Thirdly, both parties value and icontribute complementary services towards the achievement of partnership goals. The study also revealed that donors embrace principles of equal partnership, participation, flexibility and mutuality; but in practice this was found to be wanting. Thus donors are challenged to practice these principles, and NGOs to seek other strategies that would ensure their independence. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.) -University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

This research examined the role of men within the gender and development paradigm and male students’ perceptions of gender-related work in the professional practice of IDEV. The study addressed men’s experiences with both formal and non-formal gender training in IDS within Canadian and US graduate programs. The study asked questions about influential theory, skills and tools relevant to the GAD paradigm. The methods included an online survey of males in IDS graduate programs from five North American universities. Key informants were also interviewed, including faculty members from four universities and two senior level gender advisors working for large non-profit organizations. The findings were presented as four emerging themes: 1) Despite exposure to some gender training opportunities, many male graduate students are not engaged with theory and practise on GAD; 2) The relevance of men in GAD continues to be questioned by the field and men themselves; 3) There is little “buy in” to gender in IDEV by men studying IDS at the graduate level; 4) The field of GAD is primarily operating without the active engagement of men and therefore, is better associated with WID’s “women’s focused” policy and programming, an approach the UN acknowledges to have failed in the past. The study recommends adjustments within IDS graduate studies as well as further research on men and masculinity to strengthen the role of men in achieving GAD’s stated goal of gender equality.

No abstract available. / Thesis (M.Dev.Studies)-University of Natal, Durban.

The aim of the study was to find out whether or not engagement in urban agriculture for individuals and households is a response to a lack of formal wage employment in the post-apartheid period. This period is characterised by changes in the economy of South Africa which led to an observed increase in poverty and unemployment and an increase in informal employment. The study utilised both quantitative and qualitative methods to look at urban farming issues in KwaZulu-Natal. The quantitative data came from the KwaZulu-Natal Income Dynamics Surveys (KIDS), which carried out surveys in three waves spanning the period of democratic transition over a 10-year period in 1993, 1998 and 2004. This data was analysed using the statistical package STATA and employed regression modelling techniques to investigate the odds of engagement in urban agriculture, given certain individual and household characteristics, which is a particular nuance for this study. Because of its potential in food production and income generation, a smaller-scale qualitative farmer survey was undertaken in two different communities, comparing three different categories of home gardening, community gardening and market gardening in KwaZulu-Natal, using a semi-structured questionnaire. This component sought to document, in farmers’ own words, their experiences and practice of farming in an urban environment and gave in-depth insights about the motivation of the people involved, the types of food crops grown, and so on. Key informant interviews were conducted with a community of professionals for illuminating their perspectives on the practice of urban agriculture in KwaZulu-Natal. The key findings of the study are that urban agriculture is an activity that is undertaken by people seeking a survival strategy when their preferred activity (such as formal employment) is not available and it can be an activity undertaken by entrepreneurs for income generation. According to their main activity status, the types of people that engage in urban agriculture include those in wage employment and the unemployed, as well as the non-economically active. The contribution of agricultural income to total household income represents miniscule amounts, at an average of less than one percent. Regression modelling results, combining person level and household level variables, predicted more likely odds of farming for women, by a factor of 1.67. Increase in the number of years of education decreased the odds by 0.90 times. If a person lost employment, this increased their odds of engaging in urban agriculture by 1.23 times. People in the age group 36-46 years predicted the highest likelihood for participation in urban agriculture, by a factor of 2.54. Larger household size predicted odds more likely to engage while poor households also predicted odds more likely to engage, by a factor of 2.07 times. Urban agriculture is vastly heterogeneous and is undertaken by all income groups. It is a result of both push and pull factors. People engage in it neither as a survival strategy nor an entrepreneurial strategy only. It is, however, an activity in which the poor are disproportionately represented. The potential of urban agriculture to generate employment is linked to the nature of support received from government and non-governmental organisations. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

For decades linkages between population, development and environment have been related to population growth which refers to the increase of population size without consideration of its internal dynamics, i.e. sex composition and age structure. It was the prime aim of the thesis to establish whether changes in population structure and age structure have any impact on the environmental changes, catchment forest in particular and the extended effects on catchment value and micro climatic change. Basing on the available quantitative data from the household survey and the qualitative data based on PRA discussions, it became apparent that both sex composition and age structure significantly influenced household members' involvement in activities related to both deforestation and those linked to conservation. A remarkable variation was noted in terms of involvement of males and females in specific activities that led to deforestation such as expansion of farms and firewood collecting. Males dealt with cutting of trees for firewood while females collected firewood from those trees cut by males. Male dominance was also clearly observed in conservation-related activities, particularly in tree planting. Sex and/or gender issues were noted to play a vital role in livelihood activities because sex differences and inequalities constitute social systems with consequences on environment changes. Individual's age also influenced one's involvement in livelihood activities. This based on biological capability for performing certain tasks and the socially assignment of duties and responsibilities, i.e. age-based division of labour and specialization which is part of culture. It is therefore imperative for demographic knowledge to be taken into account in the analysis of environmental changes. Gender based division of labour and specialization was the basis for differential involvement of household members in livelihood/development activities. It is argued that unless the key actors in deforestation and conservation are identified basing in the demographic characteristics no sustainable conservation may be attained. Even in the event of urging for participatory or joint forest management, like vast literature points out, a need to focus and target the key actors, by their demographic characteristics, becomes an indispensable and important aspect for attaining sustainable conservation. Poverty conditions that prevail in most developing countries, that limit availability of funds for broadbased extension service, would ensure its effective utilization of little financial resources available through adoption of a more focussed or targeted conservation strategy. Such scientifically planned extension interventions accrue from and are directed towards the identified environmentally significant population segments rather than the entire population. This is the essence of effectiveness and sustainability of conservation efforts based on demographic analysis of the in situ population. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

The situation in South Africa presents unique challenges to achieving sustained poverty reduction. Although it is an upper-middle-income country with a per capita income similar to that of Botswana, Brazil or Malaysia, a significant proportion of South African households have remained poor despite a plethora of government policies that target the less resourced. While estimates vary, over 22.9 million South Africans are categorised as being poor, with almost 2.5 million people suffering from malnutrition. Most analysts now agree that while poverty increased during the 1990s, some progress has been made in reducing both the incidence and depth of poverty after 2000. This thesis argues that the economic and social dynamics set in motion by apartheid that produced this situation, may also have generated a low-level equilibrium trap from which some the poor in South Africa will find it difficult to escape. The thesis suggests that the explanation for this 'poverty trap' lies in what Sen has termed the exchange entitlement mapping that poor households face when attempting to use their assets/endowments. In other words, the processes that underpin the accumulation of assets, the opportunities to use these assets, and the returns obtained are structurally prejudiced against the poor. The implication is that the current experience of poverty leads to its reproduction and to a structurally persistent poverty. The central research question of this thesis is then: "Did the extent, distribution and experience of poverty of the apartheid era persist in the immediate post-apartheid South Africa despite the efforts of government to foster pro-poor reforms?" The central policy concern is that if asset accumulation failure underpins persistent poverty, policies for those who are structurally poor should be differentiated from that which is directed at those who are transitorily poor. As an example, the policies of the South African government concerning the redistribution of agrarian assets (principally land and finance) may not be sufficient to assist the poor in rural areas, and may only increase intra-rural inequality. The thesis draws on two principal data sources: the South African Participatory Poverty Assessment completed in 1997, and the KwaZulu-Natal Income Dynamics Study (KIDS) which contains panel data collected from the same households in 1993, 1998 and 2004. Using these data, the thesis identifies a typology of structural poverty classes. At the bottom of this typology are those trapped in poverty with an asset base that is inadequate to meet their immediate needs as well as their ability to accumulate further assets over time. Other are stochastically poor or non-poor, moving in and out of poverty according to their good or bad fortune. Finally some have never been poor and have the asset base to ensure that they remain in this position or indeed improve over time. The livelihood strategies of households are used to differentiate households according to their participation in labour markets, farm and non-farm own production and access to social grants. The livelihood clusters that result are then matched to the poverty classes in order show differentiation among the households surveyed in KIDS. This allows for more nuanced policy recommendations that can be tailored to the needs of households experiencing different forms of poverty. This thesis is 87 000 words in length excluding appendices. / Thesis (Ph.D)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2008.