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1	Microwave Frequency Stability and Spin Wave Mode Structure in Nano-Contact Spin Torque Oscillators Eklund, Anders January 2016 (has links) The nano-contact spin torque oscillator (NC-STO) is an emerging device for highly tunable microwave frequency generation in the range from 0.1 GHz to above 65 GHz with an on-chip footprint on the scale of a few μm. The frequency is inherent to the magnetic material of the NC-STO and is excited by an electrical DC current by means of the spin torque transfer effect. Although the general operation is well understood, more detailed aspects such as a generally nonlinear frequency versus current relationship, mode-jumping and high device-to-device variability represent open questions. Further application-oriented questions are related to increasing the electrical output power through synchronization of multiple NC-STOs and integration with CMOS integrated circuits. This thesis consists of an experimental part and a simulation part. Experimentally, for the frequency stability it is found that the slow but strong 1/f-type frequency fluctuations are related to the degree of nonlinearity and the presence of perturbing, unexcited modes. It is also found that the NC-STO can exhibit up to three propagating spin wave oscillation modes with different frequencies and can randomly jump between them. These findings were made possible through the development of a specialized microwave time-domain measurement circuit. Another instrumental achievement was made with synchrotron X-rays, where we image dynamically the magnetic internals of an operating NC-STO device and reveal a spin wave mode structure with a complexity significantly higher than the one predicted by the present theory. In the simulations, we are able to reproduce the nonlinear current dependence by including spin wave-reflecting barriers in the nm-thick metallic, magnetic free layer. A physical model for the barriers is introduced in the form of metal grain boundaries with reduced magnetic exchange coupling. Using the experimentally measured average grain size of 30 nm, the spin wave mode structure resulting from the grain model is able to reproduce the experimentally found device nonlinearity and high device-to-device variability. In conclusion, the results point out microscopic material grains in the metallic free layer as the reason behind the nonlinear frequency versus current behavior and multiple propagating spin wave modes and thereby as a source of device-to-device variability and frequency instability. / Dagens snabba utveckling inom informationsteknik drivs på av ständigt växande informationsmängder och deras samhällsanvändning inom allt från resursoptimering till underhållning. Utvecklingen möjliggörs till stor del hårdvarumässigt av miniatyrisering och integrering av elektroniska komponenter samt trådlös kommunikation med allt större bandbredd och högre överföringshastighet. Det senare uppnås främst genom utnyttjande av högre radiofrekvenser i teknologiskt tidigare oåtkomliga delar av spektrumet. Frekvensutnyttjandet har det senaste årtiondet ökat markant i mikrovågsområdet med typiska frekvenser runt 2.4 GHz och 5.2-5.8 GHz. I den spinntroniska oscillatorn (STO:n) möjliggörs frekvensgenerering i det breda området från 0.1 GHz upp till över 65 GHz av en komponent med mikrometerstorlek som kan integreras direkt i CMOS-mikrochip. Till skillnad från i konventionella radiokretsar med oscillatorer konstruerade av integrerade transistorer och spolar, genereras mikrovågsfrekvensen direkt i STO:ns magnetiska material och omvandlas därefter till en elektrisk signal genom komponentens magnetoresistans. Dessa materialegenskaper möjliggör ett tillgängligt frekvensband med extrem bredd i en och samma STO, som därtill kan frekvensmoduleras direkt genom sin styrström och på så sätt förenklar konstruktionen av sändarsystem. STO:ns icke-linjära egenskaper kan potentiellt också användas för att i en och samma komponent blanda ned mottagna mikrovågssignaler och på så sätt förenkla konstruktionen även av mikrovågsmottagare. STO:ns signalegenskaper bestäms av det magnetiska materialets fysik i form av magnetiseringsdynamik driven av elektriskt genererade spinnströmmar. I denna avhandling studeras denna dynamik experimentellt med särskilt fokus på frekvensstabiliteten i den hittills mest stabila STO-typen; nanokontakts-STO:n. Genom mätningar i tidsdomän av STO:ns elektriska signaler runt 25 GHz har frekvensstabiliteten funnits hänga samman med den typ av icke-linjärt beteende som också funnits vara utmärkande för tillverkningsvariationen i komponenterna. Mikroskopiska undersökningar av materialet visar att en trolig källa till denna variation är den magnetiska metallens uppbyggnad i form av korn i storleksordningen 30 nm, och datorsimuleringar av en sådan materialstruktur har visats kunna reproducera de experimentella resultaten. Därtill har en metod utvecklats för att med röntgenstrålning direkt mäta de små, magnetiska mikrovågsrörelserna i materialet. Denna röntgenteknik möjliggör detaljerade experimentella studier av magnetiseringsdynamiken och kan användas för att verifiera och vidareutveckla den existerande teorin för mikrovågsspinntronik. Sammantaget förs STO-teknologin genom denna studie ett steg närmare sina tänkbara samhällsbreda tillämpningar inom snabb, trådlös kommunikation för massproducerade produkter med integrerad sensor- och datorfunktionalitet. / <p>QC 20160620</p> spintronics microwave oscillators magnetization dynamics spin waves phase noise device modelling electrical characterization X-ray microscopy STXM XMCD
2	Estudos sobre fotogeração, efeitos de interfaces e de transporte de portadores em células solares orgânicas / Studies about photogeneration, interface effects, and charge carrier transport in organic solar cells Coutinho, Douglas José 18 June 2015 (has links) Esta tese teve por objetivo, desde seu início, investigar as propriedades elétricas de um dispositivo ITO/PEDOT:PSS/P3HT:PCBM/Ca/Al, o qual é uma estrutura bem conhecida de célula solar orgânica do tipo de heterojunção de volume (bulk-heterojunction – BHJ), e com isso dar uma contribuição à melhora de seu desempenho. Porém, o primeiro passo foi introduzir no Grupo de Polímeros Bernhard Gross, um método eficaz de produzir células solares do tipo BHJ com boa eficiência e reprodutibilidade. Esse primeiro desafio foi alcançado com sucesso. A eficiência (η) de um dispositivo fotovoltaico de multicamadas depende de muitos fatores. Dentre eles, uma boa superposição entre o espectro solar e a curva de absorção da camada absorvedora, uma excelente conversão da energia luminosa em portadores de carga, um eficiente processo de condução e uma perda mínima por recombinação e armadilhamento de portadores. Além disso, a compatibilidade eletrônica entre as interfaces tem um papel fundamental na definição na tensão de circuito aberto (VOC), no valor da corrente de curto-circuito (JSC), e no fator de preenchimento (FF). Baseado nesses efeitos, realizamos uma série de medidas experimentais, que auxiliado por um modelo teórico proporcionaram um estudo detalhado da evolução em função da temperatura da mobilidade dos portadores (μ) e de seu tempo de vida (τ). Os principais experimentos nessa tese foram realizados em diferentes temperaturas (entre 100 e 340 K). Foram eles: medidas de fotocorrente - Jph(V), a técnica de foto-CELIV, e medidas de transiente de fotovoltagem (TPV). Em paralelo, desenvolvemos o modelo teórico para a descrição analítica de Jph(V) que assumiu contatos não-injetores e que o livre caminho médio (w = μτF) de elétrons e buracos eram iguais (F é o campo elétrico). Nos ajustes teórico/experimental usamos a probabilidade de dissociação dos estados de transferência de carga (P) e o produto μτ como parâmetros de ajuste. A condição na qual o livre caminho médio é maior que a espessura da amostra (w >> L) reproduz a corrente de saturação reversa, Jsat = qGPLG é a taxa de geração dos éxcitons. Para w << L, a fotocorrente varia linearmente com o livre caminho médio, ou seja, J(F) = qGPμτF. A comparação entre os resultados experimentais e os teóricos permitiram, além da obtenção da evolução das grandezas μ e τ com a temperatura, estabelecer uma relação efetiva entre os parâmetros da célula (η, JSC, e FF) e as propriedades elétricas da camada ativa P3HT:PCBM. As medidas termo-mecânicas (DMA) forneceram informações adicionais sobre mudanças estruturais da camada ativa, as quais foram correlacionadas com variações dos parâmetros da célula e com fatores de perda. Finalmente, medidas de tempo-de-voo (TOF) e de CELIV foram realizadas para estudos mais detalhados sobre mecanismos de transporte ao longo da camada ativa, a efeitos de injeção pelos eletrodos, e para o entendimento de efeitos de degradação pela ação do oxigênio. / This thesis aims to investigate electrical characteristics of an ITO/PEDOT:PSS/P3HT:PCBM/Ca/Al device, which is a well-known structure of a bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) organic solar cell, and to contribute to improve its performance. However, the first step was to introduce in the Group of Polymer Bernhard Gross an effective method for producing BHJ solar cells, manufacturing thus devices exhibiting excellent performance and reproducibility. This thesis aims to investigate electrical characteristics of an ITO/PEDOT:PSS/P3HT:PCBM/Ca/Al device, which is a well-known structure of a bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) organic solar cell, and to contribute to improve its performance. However, the first step was to introduce in the Group of Polymer Bernhard Gross an effective method for producing BHJ solar cells, manufacturing thus devices exhibiting excellent performance and reproducibility. This goal was successfully achieved. The good efficiency (η) of a multilayer photovoltaic cell depends on many factors, including good overlap between the solar spectrum and the light absorbing layer, an excellent conversion of the absorbed light energy in pairs of electronic carriers, efficient charge transport and the minimum losses by recombination or by the action of deep traps for the carriers. Furthermore, the compatibility between electronic interfaces plays a crucial role in defining the open-circuit voltage (VOC) and the value of short-circuit current (JSC), and on the fill factor (FF). Anchored on these effects, we carried out a series of experiments, aided by a theoretical modeling, which provided a detailed study of the temperature evolution of fundamental electric quantities such as carrier mobility (μ) and its lifetime (τ). These studies were performed with the help of different experiments: photocurrent in function of the applied voltage  Jph(V), Photo-CELIV technique, and Transient Photovoltage (TPV) measurements, which were carried out at several temperatures in the 100 to 340 K range. In parallel, we developed an analytical model for Jph(V) that assumed non-injecting contacts and equal mean-free-paths for electrons and holes. The theoretical/experimental entities used as fitting parameters were the charge-transfer-state dissociation probability (P) and the μτ product. The condition in which the mean-free-path (w = μτF) is higher the sample thickness (L), the model reproduces the experimental reverse saturation current, Jsat = qGPL, which is coincident with the experimental value. F is the internal electric field and G is the generation rate of excitons by the absorbed light. When w << L, J(F) = qGPμτF, which is also coincident with experimental behavior. The confrontation between the experimental results and the theoretical model provided, in addition to the study of the evolution of μ and τ with temperature, to establish a more effective relationship between the parameters (η, JSC, e FF) of the cell and the electrical properties of the P3HT:PCBM active layer. Thermomechanical analysis (DMA) provided additional information of structural changes of active layer, which can be correlated with change in the loss factor and in the cell parameters. Finally, Time-of-Flight (TOF) and CELIV techniques were used in the more accurate study of charge transport along the active layers, effects of injection by the electrodes, and the degradation effect caused by oxygen. Células solares orgânicas Device modelling Efeitos de interface foto-CELIV Fotocorrente Interface effects Modelagem de dispositivo Organic solar cells photo-CELIV Photocurrent Tempo-de-voo Time-of-flight
3	On Generation and Recombination in Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Thin-Film Solar Cells Malmström, Jonas January 2005 (has links) The solar cell technology based on Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) thin-films provides a promising route to cost competitive solar electricity. The standard device structure is ZnO:Al/ZnO/CdS/CIGS/Mo films on a glass substrate, where the first three layers are n-type semiconductors with wide bandgaps, forming a pn-junction with the p-type CIGS absorber layer; the Mo layer serves as a back contact. This thesis deals with analysis of the generation and recombination of electron-hole pairs throughout the device. These processes determine the maximum output power: generation limits the current; recombination limits the voltage. The generation is calculated with an optical model based on complex refractive indices determined for the individual layers. The main features of the optical response of the solar cell can be reproduced with a specular model neglecting scattering. A model including ideally Lambertian scattering at the front and back surface of the CIGS absorber layer is introduced to investigate the possibility to maintain a high current generation with thin absorber layers. The result highlights the relatively poor optical performance of the Mo back contact. TiN and ZrN are explored as alternatives, and improved optical performance is experimentally demonstrated for both materials. The recombination analysis emphasizes that, in general, more than one recombination path of comparable magnitude are operative in parallel. For cells with absorber bandgap increasing from 1.0 eV (CuInSe2) to 1.7 eV (CuGaSe2), a relative increase of interface recombination is found. When these cells are subject to accelerated ageing, degradation is smallest for intermediate bandgaps; an explanation involving different sensitivity to decreased absorber band bending and activation of grain boundaries is suggested. The optical gain with ZrN back contacts is counteracted by increased back contact recombination and contact resistance, but an intermediate layer of MoSe2 is shown to alleviate these problems, allowing for an overall improved efficiency. Electronics solar energy conversion solar cells Cu(In Ga)Se2 device modelling optical properties electron-hole generation light trapping electron-hole recombination Elektronik Electronics Elektronik
4	Estudos sobre fotogeração, efeitos de interfaces e de transporte de portadores em células solares orgânicas / Studies about photogeneration, interface effects, and charge carrier transport in organic solar cells Douglas José Coutinho 18 June 2015 (has links) Esta tese teve por objetivo, desde seu início, investigar as propriedades elétricas de um dispositivo ITO/PEDOT:PSS/P3HT:PCBM/Ca/Al, o qual é uma estrutura bem conhecida de célula solar orgânica do tipo de heterojunção de volume (bulk-heterojunction – BHJ), e com isso dar uma contribuição à melhora de seu desempenho. Porém, o primeiro passo foi introduzir no Grupo de Polímeros Bernhard Gross, um método eficaz de produzir células solares do tipo BHJ com boa eficiência e reprodutibilidade. Esse primeiro desafio foi alcançado com sucesso. A eficiência (η) de um dispositivo fotovoltaico de multicamadas depende de muitos fatores. Dentre eles, uma boa superposição entre o espectro solar e a curva de absorção da camada absorvedora, uma excelente conversão da energia luminosa em portadores de carga, um eficiente processo de condução e uma perda mínima por recombinação e armadilhamento de portadores. Além disso, a compatibilidade eletrônica entre as interfaces tem um papel fundamental na definição na tensão de circuito aberto (VOC), no valor da corrente de curto-circuito (JSC), e no fator de preenchimento (FF). Baseado nesses efeitos, realizamos uma série de medidas experimentais, que auxiliado por um modelo teórico proporcionaram um estudo detalhado da evolução em função da temperatura da mobilidade dos portadores (μ) e de seu tempo de vida (τ). Os principais experimentos nessa tese foram realizados em diferentes temperaturas (entre 100 e 340 K). Foram eles: medidas de fotocorrente - Jph(V), a técnica de foto-CELIV, e medidas de transiente de fotovoltagem (TPV). Em paralelo, desenvolvemos o modelo teórico para a descrição analítica de Jph(V) que assumiu contatos não-injetores e que o livre caminho médio (w = μτF) de elétrons e buracos eram iguais (F é o campo elétrico). Nos ajustes teórico/experimental usamos a probabilidade de dissociação dos estados de transferência de carga (P) e o produto μτ como parâmetros de ajuste. A condição na qual o livre caminho médio é maior que a espessura da amostra (w >> L) reproduz a corrente de saturação reversa, Jsat = qGPLG é a taxa de geração dos éxcitons. Para w << L, a fotocorrente varia linearmente com o livre caminho médio, ou seja, J(F) = qGPμτF. A comparação entre os resultados experimentais e os teóricos permitiram, além da obtenção da evolução das grandezas μ e τ com a temperatura, estabelecer uma relação efetiva entre os parâmetros da célula (η, JSC, e FF) e as propriedades elétricas da camada ativa P3HT:PCBM. As medidas termo-mecânicas (DMA) forneceram informações adicionais sobre mudanças estruturais da camada ativa, as quais foram correlacionadas com variações dos parâmetros da célula e com fatores de perda. Finalmente, medidas de tempo-de-voo (TOF) e de CELIV foram realizadas para estudos mais detalhados sobre mecanismos de transporte ao longo da camada ativa, a efeitos de injeção pelos eletrodos, e para o entendimento de efeitos de degradação pela ação do oxigênio. / This thesis aims to investigate electrical characteristics of an ITO/PEDOT:PSS/P3HT:PCBM/Ca/Al device, which is a well-known structure of a bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) organic solar cell, and to contribute to improve its performance. However, the first step was to introduce in the Group of Polymer Bernhard Gross an effective method for producing BHJ solar cells, manufacturing thus devices exhibiting excellent performance and reproducibility. This thesis aims to investigate electrical characteristics of an ITO/PEDOT:PSS/P3HT:PCBM/Ca/Al device, which is a well-known structure of a bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) organic solar cell, and to contribute to improve its performance. However, the first step was to introduce in the Group of Polymer Bernhard Gross an effective method for producing BHJ solar cells, manufacturing thus devices exhibiting excellent performance and reproducibility. This goal was successfully achieved. The good efficiency (η) of a multilayer photovoltaic cell depends on many factors, including good overlap between the solar spectrum and the light absorbing layer, an excellent conversion of the absorbed light energy in pairs of electronic carriers, efficient charge transport and the minimum losses by recombination or by the action of deep traps for the carriers. Furthermore, the compatibility between electronic interfaces plays a crucial role in defining the open-circuit voltage (VOC) and the value of short-circuit current (JSC), and on the fill factor (FF). Anchored on these effects, we carried out a series of experiments, aided by a theoretical modeling, which provided a detailed study of the temperature evolution of fundamental electric quantities such as carrier mobility (μ) and its lifetime (τ). These studies were performed with the help of different experiments: photocurrent in function of the applied voltage  Jph(V), Photo-CELIV technique, and Transient Photovoltage (TPV) measurements, which were carried out at several temperatures in the 100 to 340 K range. In parallel, we developed an analytical model for Jph(V) that assumed non-injecting contacts and equal mean-free-paths for electrons and holes. The theoretical/experimental entities used as fitting parameters were the charge-transfer-state dissociation probability (P) and the μτ product. The condition in which the mean-free-path (w = μτF) is higher the sample thickness (L), the model reproduces the experimental reverse saturation current, Jsat = qGPL, which is coincident with the experimental value. F is the internal electric field and G is the generation rate of excitons by the absorbed light. When w << L, J(F) = qGPμτF, which is also coincident with experimental behavior. The confrontation between the experimental results and the theoretical model provided, in addition to the study of the evolution of μ and τ with temperature, to establish a more effective relationship between the parameters (η, JSC, e FF) of the cell and the electrical properties of the P3HT:PCBM active layer. Thermomechanical analysis (DMA) provided additional information of structural changes of active layer, which can be correlated with change in the loss factor and in the cell parameters. Finally, Time-of-Flight (TOF) and CELIV techniques were used in the more accurate study of charge transport along the active layers, effects of injection by the electrodes, and the degradation effect caused by oxygen. Células solares orgânicas Efeitos de interface foto-CELIV Fotocorrente Modelagem de dispositivo Tempo-de-voo Device modelling Interface effects Organic solar cells photo-CELIV Photocurrent Time-of-flight
5	Simulation monte carlo de MOSFET à base de materiaux III-V pour une électronique haute fréquence ultra basse consommation / Monte Carlo simulation of III-V material-based MOSFET for high frequency and ultra-low consumption applications Shi, Ming 27 January 2012 (has links) Le rendement consommation/fréquence des futures générations de circuits intégrés sur silicium n’est pas satisfaisant à cause de la faible mobilité électronique de ce semi-conducteur et des relativement grandes tensions d’alimentation VDD requises. Ce travail se propose d’explorer numériquement les potentialités des transistors à effet de champ (FET) à base de matériaux III-V à faible bande interdite et à haute mobilité pour un fonctionnement en haute fréquence et une ultra basse consommation. Tout d’abord, l’étude consiste à analyser théoriquement le fonctionnement d’une capacité MOS III-V en résolvant de façon auto-cohérente les équations de Poisson et Schrödinger (PS). On peut ainsi comprendre comment et pourquoi les effets extrinsèques comme les états de pièges à l’interface high-k/III-V dégradent les caractéristiques intrinsèques. Pour une géométrie 2D, les performances des dispositifs sont estimées pour des applications logiques et analogiques à l’aide d’un modèle de transport quasi-balistique.Nous avons ensuite étudié plus en détails les performances des MOSFET III-V en régimes statiques et dynamiques sous faible VDD, à l’aide du simulateur particulaire MONACO de type Monte Carlo. Les caractéristiques de quatre topologies de MOSFET ont été quantitativement étudiées, en termes de transport quasi-balistique, de courants statiques aux états passants et bloqués, de rendement fréquence/consommation et de bruit. Nous en tirons des conclusions sur l’optimisation de ces dispositifs. Enfin, l'étude comparative avec un FET à base de Si démontre clairement le potentiel des MOSFET III-V pour les applications à haute fréquence, à faible puissance de consommation et à faible bruit. / The optimal frequency performance/power-consumption trade-off is very difficult to achieve using CMOS technology because of low Si carrier mobility and relatively large supply voltage (VDD) required for circuit operation. The main objective of this work is to theoretically explore, in terms of operation frequency and power consumption, the potentialities of nano-MOSFET based on III-V materials with low energy bandgap and high electron mobility.First, this work analyzes theoretically the operation of a III-V MOS capacitor using self-consistent solution of Poisson - Schrödinger system equation. We can thus understand how and why the interface trap state densities at high-k/III-V interfaces degrade the intrinsic characteristics. For a 2D geometry, the performance of devices is estimated for digital and analog applications using a model of quasi-ballistic transport.Then, we estimated the performance of III-V MOSFET in static and dynamic regimes under low VDD, using MONACO a Monte Carlo simulator. The characteristics of four designs of III-V MOSFET have been studied quantitatively in terms of quasi-ballistic transport, DC current in ON and OFF states, frequency/consumption efficiency and optimum matching conditions of noise. We provide the guideline on the design optimization of the devices.Finally, the comparative study with Si-based devices clearly demonstrates the potentiality of III-V nano-MOSFET architectures for high-frequency and low-noise application under low operating power and even for low voltage logic. Matériaux III-V Monte Carlo Poisson-Schrödinger Transport balistique Contrôle de charge Capacité quantique Etats de pièges à l’interface (Dit) Performance RF Semiconductor Device Modelling III-V materials Monte Carlo Poisson-Schrödinger Charge control Inversion layer capacitance Ballistic transport Interface trap state RF performance Noise figure and low consumption

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