Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The experiences and perceptions of ICT access and usage by women in marginalised South African communities is sorely under researched. Where information from a gender-based perspective reflecting potential digital gender disparities exists, it is typically a statistical view of the ICT landscape (largely reflecting access). Exploration of the complex underlying socio-cultural factors affecting women’s ICT usage is under-represented. There is an urgent need to hear women’s own voices and perspectives on such intricate and often obscure subject matter. This research has aimed to bring traditionally overlooked perspectives to the fore by exploring the experiences and perceptions of women in marginalised South African communities regarding ICT access and usage. This qualitative study, guided by a feminist phenomenological perspective, focused on the individual lived experiences of twelve women living in three marginalised areas of the Western Cape of South Africa. Data were collected via semi-structured interviews and analysed through the Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) approach. The findings showed that the women had strong attachments to ICT and had integrated it into their own individual contexts, to fit their needs and activities. ICT had been interwoven into various social, economic, educational, political, cultural, recreational and spiritual dimensions of life. A range of factors emerged as having influence on women’s digital participation. Some of the more significant barriers were digital skills and confidence, poor social support systems, affordability of ICT, awareness of personally beneficial opportunities, time constraints, resistance from a male partner and poor literacy. Additionally, the women lived in highly gendered environments, with sociallyconstructed gender norms, roles and identities, which had a strong influence on digital experiences and perceptions. This socio-cultural gender inequality was fundamental in the time constraints, and in the power dynamics and resistance women faced from male partners. Findings indicated that gender identities and traits disadvantage females in the digital context, for example ideas of femininity being viewed as conflicting with a perceived ‘dirty’ ICT field. Detrimental perceptions associating sophisticated ICT activity with males were reportedly prevalent in the communities and some of the women interviewed subscribed to the essentialist theory which considers men inherently better suited to technology. These findings have important implications for policies and practices in view of enhancing the digital inclusion of women in marginalised South African communities. Recommendations towards this end are outlined, specifically centred on gendersensitive approaches in the planning and implementation of digital inclusion initiatives.

Gender plays an important role in access to the ICTs and Internet. Even when both genders have almost equal access to the ICTs and online services, or similar literacy rates, women have a lower rate in technology related education, employment, income, and in social activities than men.This thesis focuses on the existing digital gender gap by identifying its key factors and trends and studying the role of Internet and ICTs in bridging this gap. In addition, to suggest improvements to empower women in the developing countries and especially in Iran. A qualitative research method was adopted and semi-structured interview with 5 Internet users who were purposely chosen, was conducted. The data were analyzed and interpreted with the help of Lichtman's 3C method. This research study has examined the possible gender digital divide among users of ICTs and Internet in Iran and by making use of the existed secondary data. The empirical findings are discussed and compared to the reviewed literature, which resulted to an arising framework for a better understanding of digital gap among women.This research gives an overview about the digital divide, with a focus specifically on the challenges women face in accessing the ICTs and Internet in this region. Current gender disparities and discrimination in Internet use are outlined and the obstacles hindering women’s access to the technology world are described. At the later stage, the research has a look at the potential opportunities for women’s participation in a global digital society along with a consideration of the initiatives that have been developed in order to mitigate the gender inequity in Iran.