Seven percent of all students are excluded from school every year across the United States for violating school policies and procedures. Exclusion from school causes a number of problems for students such as higher dropout rates, grade retention, more of a likelihood of not graduating from high school, and a widening of the achievement gap. However, the literature review reveals a lack of exclusion research specific to Hispanic students. Therefore, this research study investigated the level of disciplinary referrals leading to student suspensions during the 2013-2014 school year in a southern California school district of 9223 students with a student demographic composed of 39% free-and-reduced meals, 24% English language learners, and 36% Hispanic. The research study analyzed not just referrals but differences between subjective versus objective referrals for Hispanic and White students. Risk ratio results indicated that Hispanic students were more likely to receive referrals that resulted in suspensions from school at two-and-one-half times the rate compared to their White peers for both subjective (RR = 2.572) and objective (RR = 2.600) referrals. While there was no difference, p = .308, between referrals labeled as subjective versus objective, Hispanic students were significantly more likely to receive objective (p = .017) and subjective (p = .041) disciplinary referrals that resulted in suspensions compared to their White peers. The most significant factors that predicted overall student disciplinary referrals were English language learner status and free and reduced meals. In particular, English language status accounted for 60% of all referrals leading to a student suspension. Oppositely, factors that had the least predicted referral infractions were talented and gifted status, parent education level, and special education status. Results from this study provided school district staff with information that helped to revise district policy and procedures regarding the use of the suspension as an enforcement tool in student discipline, with particular focus on subjective versus objective referrals that could lead to student suspension. Implications of this research are discussed in relation to practice, procedures, and policies.

Within the presiding 2021-2022 school year, approximately fifty-five percent of Western Carolina University’s undergraduate population self-identifies as a first-generation student. Subsequently, a student qualifies as being first-generational when their parent(s) and/or guardian (s) does not complete a four-year college or university degree, resulting in a disproportionate measurement of confidence, adaptability, anxiety, and financial instability with respect to their newfound independence. Accordingly, the following study examines the elements that contribute to the vulnerability of first-generation students housed on college campuses. Evidence has been collected through a combination of formal and informal surveys and interviews with individuals who identify as first generational, as well as residing Emergency Management professionals. Upon analysis, a constructed proposal has been established for Disaster Management educators and students of Western Carolina University’s populace to which the institution’s Emergency and Disaster Management Department will further fabricate and promote.

This thesis investigates the concept of environmental justice (EJ) by tracing its origins, the process of its shaping and reshaping, and its adoption in Taiwan. EJ addresses the phenomenon of disproportionate distribution of environmental risks among social groups. As no one can actually “see” how risks are distributed, one has no choice but to rely on scientific (or other) techniques to visualise and then conceptualise these risks. After so doing, EJ has been turned into specific indicators to gauge EJ/injustice and the technical methods to measure it, even though the scope of these concerns is much broader and goes far beyond the technical. Using detailed historical exposition in tandem with interviews, this thesis seeks to demonstrate the processes that have led to the dominant constructions of environmental justice. The main argument of this thesis is that the phenomenon of EJ/injustice is a condensation of power relations/struggle, and the discourses that describe and the measures that gauge it are an expression of this struggle. Specifically, in this thesis I attempt to show that EJ is being constructed through the very process of debate among EJ supporters and with their challengers. Seen from this angle, this thesis shows that the conceptions of EJ differ and are mutable. To say that these conceptions change is not to deny that there is environmental injustice, but to recognise that the key characteristics can be categorised or explained differently. This research discloses that claims about EJ can be framed in much greater variety in terms of identity, difference, territory and governance. This thesis suggests that although understanding EJ through specific indicators and some sorts of techniques are necessary, a just society cannot be achieved through scientific research alone. The question of how much or what sort of data is sufficient to prove the existence of (in)justice is not a scientific one, but a social one. Our research could become much more meaningful if we recognise the specificity and limitations of the dominant approach and if the phenomenon of EJ/injustice is put in context. To achieve this, our intellectual endeavours should be properly conceived as being about a theory of endless political struggles over the issue, rather than simply about “discovering” EJ.

Іnеquаlіtіеs іn thе rерrеsеntаtіоn оf wоmеn іn hіghеr аdmіnіstrаtіvе рublіс sсhооl роsіtіоns аrе а рrоduсt оf hіstоrісаl аnd sосіеtаl раttеrns (Byrd-Blаkе, 2000). Thеsе раttеrns hаvе dеtеrmіnеd thе соnstrаіnts wоmеn hаvе fасеd аnd соntіnuе tо fасе whеn thеy аttеmрt tо оbtаіn аdmіnіstrаtіvе роsіtіоns іn рublіс educational sсhооl systеms. Shаkеshаft's (1999) study revealed thаt wоmеn rерrеsеnt thе mаjоrіty оf thе tеасhіng рrоfеssіоn in public education (83.5%), but thеy rерrеsеnt approximately 14% of thе mіnоrіty оf tор lеvеl аdmіnіstrаtіvе роsіtіоns іn рublіс еduсаtіоn. Ассоrdіng tо Dаvіеs-Nеtzlеy (1998), wоmеn соntіnuе tо bе аt thе bоttоm оf thе соrроrаtе оrgаnіzаtіоnаl сhаrts, hаvе fеwеr сhаnсеs fоr аdvаnсеmеnts, аnd еаrn lеss іnсоmе thаn mеn іn sіmіlаr роsіtіоns. Out of the nations 13, 728 k-12 public school superintendents, 1, 984 are women (AASA, 2000). Thіs lасk оf gеndеr bаlаnсе аnd rеlаtеd іnеquіtіеs rаіsеs thе quеstіоn оf whеthеr wоmеn аrе trеаtеd іnеquіtаbly wіth rеgаrd tо nаtіоnаl stаtіstісs оn аdmіnіstrаtіvе hіrіng. Ассоrdіng tо thе Lоuіsіаnа Stаtе Dіrесtоry (2007), 20 оf thе stаtе 64 suреrіntеndеnts аrе wоmеn. Yеt, the number of k-12 public school wоmеn superintendents rеmаіn disproportionate to the number of women serving as classroom teachers. This study examined thе саrееr раths оf five wоmеn suреrіntеndеnts, thеіr suссеssеs, strugglеs, аnd bаrrіеrs tо k-12 рublіс sсhооl suреrіntеndеnts іn thе stаtе оf Lоuіsіаnа. Іn аddіtіоn, thе undеr-rерrеsеntаtіоn оf wоmеn suреrіntеndеnts іn thіs stаtе wаs іnvеstіgаtеd thrоugh іntеrvіеws, оbsеrvаtіоns, аnd dосumеnt аnаlysis.

Disproportionate representation of minority students in special education remains a very controversial, unresolved issue. This synthesis summarizes historical perspectives and current knowledge about disproportionate representation with respect to: (a) definitions of disproportionate representation and related issues of interpretation; (b) national and state-level estimates of disproportionality for four ethnic groups; (c) legal, policy, research and teacher education responses to disproportionality; and (d) hypothesized causes and predictors of disproportionality. Authors stress the need for: coherent and well-articulated conceptual frameworks, responsible use and representation of data, research dialog that is informed by appreciation of the complex sociopolitical history and current context, and the need for effective advocacy to improve the educational success of minority students.

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The Water Framework Directive (WFD) has the stated objective of delivering good status (GS) for Europe’s surface waters and groundwaters. But meeting GS is cost dependent, and in some water bodies pollution abatement costs may be high or judged as disproportionate. The definition and assessment of disproportionate costs is central for the justification of time-frame derogations and/or lowering the environmental objectives (standards) for compliance at a water body. European official guidance is discretionary about the interpretation of disproportionate costs which consequently can be interpreted and applied differently across Member States. The aim of this research is to clarify the definition of disproportionality and to convey a consistent interpretation that is fully compliant with the economic requirements of the Directive, whilst also being mindful of the principles of pollution control and welfare economics theory. On this basis, standard-setting derogations should aim to reach socially optimal decisions and be judged with reference to a combination of explicit cost and benefit curves – an application of Cost-Benefits Analysis - and financial affordability tests. Arguably, these tools should be more influential in the development of derogation decisions across member states, including Scotland. The WFD is expected to have extensive effects on Scottish agriculture, which is faced with the challenge of maintaining its competitiveness, while protecting water resources. Focusing the analysis on the socio-economic impacts of achieving water diffuse pollution targets for the sector, a series of independent tests for the assessment of disproportionate costs are proposed and evaluated. These are: i) development of abatement cost curves for agricultural Phosphorus (P) mitigation options for different farm systems; ii) a financial characterisation of farming in Scotland and impact on profits of achieving different P loads reductions at farm level are investigated in order to explore issues on "affordability" and "ability to pay" by the sector; and iii) an investigation of benefits assessment using discrete choice modelling to explore public preferences for pollution control and measure non-market benefits of WFD water quality improvements in Scotland. Results from these tests provide benchmarks for the definition of disproportionate costs and are relevant to other aspects of the economic analysis of water use in Scotland. This study helps to clarify the nature of agricultural water use and how it leads to social tradeoffs with other non agricultural users. Ultimately, this perspective adds to the debate of how and where water is best employed to maximize its value to society.

Racial inequality within the juvenile justice system has been cited by numerous studies. This racial inequality is generally referred to as disproportionate minority contact (DMC), and the causes have been debated in the literature for decades. Using a relatively unique methodology for DMC literature, this study incorporated in-depth interview data from thirty male juveniles residing in a private correctional facility to elucidate possible causes of DMC. By analyzing and comparing the experiences of incarcerated juveniles, support for theories of systemic racism, Donald Black’s self-help or the community justice theory, and Agnew’s general strain theory was found. Themes that emerged from the qualitative data include differences in neighborhood and family contexts for minorities compared to whites, variations in motivations for engagement in criminal activity, and differences in the interactions with police officers and perceptions of the police based on race. Specifically, major findings show minority participants were more likely to describe anger and revenge as the most common reason for committing crimes compared to whites, who frequently cited boredom as their primary reason for engaging in criminal activity. Furthermore, black, Latino, and Native American participants were more likely to report growing up in dangerous neighborhoods than whites. Police interactions also showed a racial discrepancy, with whites receiving more chances from the police, and minorities being repeatedly arrested by the same officer slightly more frequently than whites. Overall, findings suggest that disproportionate minority contact is a result of disproportionate levels of strain and injustice experienced by minorities compared to whites.

Progressive collapse research aims to characterize and quantify the behavior of different structural systems in events of extreme local damage caused by bombings to improve the performance of targeted structures and to protect occupants. The focus of the research program described herein is the performance of steel gravity frame structures with composite floor systems in column loss scenarios. The goal of the project is to contribute to the development of rational design guidelines for progressive collapse resistance and to assess any potential weaknesses in current design standards. This thesis presents the results of a series of tests performed on a steel frame structure with simple framing connections and a composite floor slab under interior column loss. The specimen was designed and constructed in accordance with typical design practices and was subjected to increasing uniform floor loads after static removal of the central column. No significant structural damage was observed up to a load equivalent to the ultimate gravity design load. Further testing was performed after the deliberate reduction of the capacity of the steel framing connections, ultimately resulting in total collapse of the specimen. / text

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