Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The optimal design of a heat exchanger for a specified heat transfer, pressure drop and set of ambient conditions entails minimising space, weight, material usage and overall cost. However, the variables which influence the performance as well as the overall cost of a heat exchanger are not related in a simple way and it is not obvious which variables play the most important roles (Perry & Green, 1997:11-44). Air cooled heat exchangers (ACHEs) are normally designed in three stages, by different experts in the field, and with the aid of specially designed software. This project combines these thermal, mechanical and cost estimation processes into a MS Excel model which makes it easier to see the influence that design parameters have on the overall cost of the heat exchanger. A thermal model was created to design an API 661 (2006) ACHE. The results from this model compared well with those of HTRI Xchanger Suite 6.0 software, with HTRI being more conservative in its design mode. A mechanical design model was then developed, which uses as inputs the outputs of the thermal design. The output from this mechanical design model is the minimum material thicknesses based on the stress criteria of Appendix 13 of ASME VIII div 1 (2007) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. An experiment on a finned tube bundle was performed in a wind tunnel facility to determine performance characteristics and compare these to existing correlations in literature. The results showed that both the heat transfer coefficient (h) and loss coefficient (Eu) correlations proposed by Ganguli et al. (1985) closely predict the measured data, and were consequently used in the thermal design model. During this experiment it was also shown that the tube bundle reached 8 % - 9 % of its allowable internal fouling factor, due to rust build up inside the tubes, and in a testing period of only nine days. The thermal and mechanical models were then combined with a cost estimation process to perform both a thermal and mechanical parametric study. The thermal study showed that to obtain an optimal solution, the design must attempt to maximise the length, increase the width rather than the number of bays, make use of two bundles per bay with fewer but larger fans and employ a large number of tube rows with the least number of tube passes. These guidelines were used to create an initial design; Excel Solver was then applied to locate the optimum combination of bundle length and width that result in the minimum heat exchanger cost. Two mechanical considerations were investigated, both requiring additional welding and thus increased welding cost. Firstly the use of stay plates result in reduced required plate thicknesses according to the stress criteria since it provides additional stiffness in the header box design. Secondly the use of more (but smaller) nozzles as opposed to less (but larger) nozzles was also considered. The mechanical parametric study showed no specific trends, but both considerations should still be checked as it can be cost beneficial in a specific design. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Optimale ontwerp van ’n warmteoordraer vir ’n gespesifiseerde warmteoordrag, drukval en stel van omgewingstoestande behels die minimalisering van ruimte, gewig, materiaalverbruik en algehele koste. Die veranderlikes wat egter die werkverrigting, sowel as die algehele koste, van ’n warmteoordraer beïnvloed, hou nie in ’n eenvoudige sin met mekaar verband nie, en dit is nie vanselfsprekend watter veranderlikes die belangrikste rolle speel nie (Perry & Green, 1997:11-44). Lugverkoelde warmteoordraers (air-cooled heat exchangers of ACHEs) word normaalweg in drie fases ontwerp deur verskillende kundiges in die veld en met behulp van spesiaal ontwerpte programmatuur. Hierdie studie kombineer dié termiese, meganiese en kosteberamingsprosesse in ’n MS Excel-model, wat dit makliker maak om van te stel wat die invloed wat ontwerpparameters op die algehele koste van die hitteruiler is. ’n Termiese model is geskep om ’n “API 661 (2006) ACHE” te ontwerp. Die resultate van hierdie model het goed vergelyk met dié van die HTRI Xchanger Suite 6.0-program, met HTRI meer konserwatiew in die ontwerp af. Na die termiese model geskep is, is ’n meganieseontwerp-model ontwikkel, wat as insette die uitsette van die termiese ontwerp gebruik het. Die uitset van hierdie meganieseontwerp-model is die minimum materiaaldikte gebaseer op die spanningskriteria van Bylae 13 van “ASME VIII div 1 (2007) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.” Daar is ’n eksperiment op ’n vinbuisbundel in ’n windtonnelfasiliteit uitgevoer om werkverrigtingskarakteristieke te bepaal en dit met bestaande korrelasies in die literatuur te vergelyk. Die resultate het getoon dat sowel die warmteoordragskoëffisiënt (h) en die verlieskoeffisient (Eu) korrelasies, voorgestel deur Ganguli et al. (1985), die data wat gemeet is akkuraat voorspel, en gevolglik is die korrelasies in die termieseontwerp-model gebruik. Gedurende die eksperiment is ook getoon dat die buisbundel 8 % - 9 % van sy toelaatbare interne-aanpakkingfaktor bereik het vanweë roesopbou binne-in die buise, en dit in ’n toetsingtydperk van slegs nege dae. Die termiese en meganiese modelle was toe gekombineer met ’n kosteberamingsproses om ’n termiese sowel as ’n meganiese parametriese studie uit te voer. Die termiese studie het getoon dat, om ’n optimale oplossing te verkry, die ontwerp moet poog om die lengte te maksimeer; die wydte eerder as die aantal strate (bays) te vermeerder; van twee bundels per straat gebruik te maak met minder, maar groter waaiers; en ’n groot aantal buisrye met die kleinste hoeveelheid buisdeurvloeiweë in te span. Hierdie riglyne is gebruik in ’n aanvanklike ontwerp, waarna die Excel Solver gebruik is om die optimale kombinasie van bundellengte en –wydte vas te stel met die oog op die laagste moontlike warmteoordraerkoste. Twee meganiese oorwegings is ondersoek wat albei addisionele sweiswerk sou vereis en dus tot verhoogde sweiskoste sou lei. Eerstens lei die gebruik van ankerplate (stay plates) tot ’n vermindering in die vereiste plaatdiktes volgens die spanningskriteria, aangesien dit addisionele stewigheid in die spruitstukhouerontwerp bied. Tweedens is die gebruik van meer (maar kleiner) spuitstukke teenoor minder (maar groter) spuitstukke ook oorweeg. Die meganiese parametriese studie het geen spesifieke voorkeurneigings getoon nie, maar altwee oorgewings moet nog getoets word want dit kan koste voordelig word in 'n spesifieke ontwerp.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In light of the rapid depletion of the world’s oil reserves, concerns about energy security prompted the exploration of alternative sources of liquid fuels for transportation. One such alternative is the production of synthetic fuels with the indirect coal liquefaction process or Coal-To-Liquids (CTL) process. In this process, coal is burned in a gasifier in the presence of steam and oxygen to produce a synthesis gas or syngas, consisting mainly of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The syngas is then converted to liquid fuels and a variety of useful chemicals in a Fischer Tropsch synthesis reactor. However, the traditional process for syngas production also produces substantial amounts of carbon dioxide. In fact, only about one third of the carbon in the coal feedstock ends up in the liquid fuel product using traditional CTL technology. If additional hydrogen was available, the carbon utilisation of the process could be improved significantly. The high temperature reactor (HTR) is a gas cooled Generation IV nuclear reactor ideally suited to provide electrical power and high temperature heat for the production of carbon neutral hydrogen via high temperature electrolysis. The integration of an HTR into a CTL process therefore provides an opportunity to improve the thermal and carbon efficiency of the CTL process significantly. This thesis presents a possible process flow scheme for a nuclear assisted CTL process. The system is evaluated in terms of its thermal or syngas production efficiency (defined as the ratio of the heating value of the produced syngas to the sum of the heating value of the coal plus the HTR heat input) as well as its carbon utilisation. If the hydrogen production plant is sized to produce only enough associated oxygen to supply in the needs of the gasification plant, syngas is produced at about 63% thermal efficiency, while 71.5% of the carbon is utilised in this process. It was found that the optimum HTR outlet temperature to produce hydrogen with a high temperature steam electrolysis process is 850°C. If enough process heat and electrical power are available and process equipment capacities are sufficient, the carbon utilisation of the process could be improved even further to values in excess of 90%. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die uitputting van die wêreld se olie-reserwes, asook kommer oor energiesekuriteit het daartoe gelei dat alternatiewe bronne van vloeibare brandstowwe vir vervoer ondersoek moes word. Een so 'n alternatief is die produksie van sintetiese brandstof d.m.v. die indirekte steenkool vervloeiing proses of sogenaamde Coal-To-Liquids (CTL) proses. In hierdie proses word steenkool in die teenwoordigheid van stoom en suurstof in 'n vergasser gebrand om 'n sintesegas of singas te produseer, wat hoofsaaklik uit waterstof en koolstofmonoksied bestaan. Die sintesegas word daarna omgeskakel na vloeibare brandstowwe en 'n verskeidenheid van nuttige chemikalieë in 'n Fischer-Tropsch-sintese reaktor. Ongelukkig produseer die tradisionele proses vir sintesegas produksie ook 'n beduidende hoeveelheid koolstofdioksied. Trouens, slegs sowat een derde van die koolstof in die steenkool roumateriaal eindig in die vloeibare brandstof produk indien van tradisionele CTL-tegnologie gebruik gemaak word. Indien addisionele waterstof beskikbaar was, kon die koolstofbenutting van die proses aansienlik verbeter word. Die hoë temperatuur reaktor (HTR) is 'n gas-verkoelde Generasie IV kernreaktor wat by uitstek geskik is om elektrisiteit en hoë temperatuur hitte te verskaf vir die produksie van koolstofneutrale waterstof d.m.v. hoë temperatuur elektrolise. Die integrasie van 'n HTR in 'n CTL-proses bied dus 'n geleentheid om die termiese- en koolstofdoeltreffendheid van die CTL-proses aansienlik te verbeter. In hierdie ondersoek word 'n moontlike proses vloeidiagram vir 'n kern-gesteunde CTL-proses voorgestel. Die stelsel is geëvalueer in terme van sy termiese- of sintesegas produksie doeltreffendheid (gedefinieer as die verhouding van die hittewaarde van die geproduseerde sintesegas gedeel deur die som van die hittewaarde van die steenkool en die HTR hitte-insette) sowel as sy koolstof-effektiwiteit. Indien die waterstof produksie-aanleg ontwerp word om net genoeg geassosieerde suurstof te voorsien om in die behoeftes van die vergassing-aanleg te voorsien, word sintesegas teen ongeveer 63% termiese doeltreffendheid vervaardig, terwyl 71.5% van die koolstof in hierdie proses benut word. Daar is bevind dat 850°C die optimum HTR uitlaat temperatuur is om waterstof d.m.v. hoë temperatuur stoom-elektrolise te vervaardig. Indien daar genoeg proses hitte en elektrisiteit beskikbaar is en die proses toerusting kapasiteite voldoende is, sou die koolstof-benutting van die proses tot meer as 90% verbeter kon word.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Axial flow fans used in large-scale air-cooled steam condensers (ACSCs) may operate under distorted inflow conditions. These conditions occur due to the prevailing wind conditions, the presence of buildings, and the location of the fan within the ACSC. Fans located on the periphery of the ACSC are affected the most due to their exposure to strong winds and the inner fans drawing in air past them. Distorted inflow conditions cause varying fan blade and gearbox loading conditions. The purpose of the investigation was to simultaneously measure the inlet air flow and the resultant blade and gearbox loading conditions of a single fan located on the periphery of a large-scale ACSC. Inlet and heat exchanger bundle outlet air flow velocities were measured using a combination of ultrasonic and propeller anemometers while blade loading was measured with strain gauges attached at the neck of the specific blade being monitored. Strain gauges were also attached to the low-speed fan shaft to measure gearbox loading. Measurements were recorded over a period of 8 days where it was found that increased wind resulted in increased air flow in the axial direction of the fan, which then caused a reduction in average blade loading. This was due to a decreased static pressure rise over the fan. The fan blade was found to vibrate at its own natural frequency of 6 Hz when excited by the variable aerodynamic loading. The aerodynamic loading was extracted from the measured data and was found to correlate well with previous experimental work performed by Bredell et al. (2006a). Shaft bending stresses and torque were found to oscillate at the fan’s rotational frequency of 2Hz with a large torque exerted on the shaft during fan start-up. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Aksiaalvloeiwaaiers wat by groot lugverkoelde stoomkondensors gebruik word, werk dikwels onder verwronge inlaat lugvloei toestande wat geskied as gevolg van heersende winde, die teenwoordigheid van geboue en die posisie van die waaier in die kondensor. Waaiers wat geleë is op die rand van die kondensor word die meeste beïnvloed as gevolg van blootstelling aan die sterk winde en dwarsvloei wat deur die binneste waaiers geïnduseer word. Verwronge inlaat lugvloei veroorsaak gevolglik variërende waaierlem en ratkas belastingstoestande. Die doel van hierdie ondersoek was om terselfdetyd die inlaat lugvloei asook waaierlem en ratkas belastingstoestande van ’n enkele waaier wat op die rand van ’n grootskaalse lugverkoelde stoomkondensor geleë is, te meet. Waaier inlaat en warmteruiler uitlaat lugvloei snelhede is gemeet met ’n kombinasie van ultrasoniese- en skroefwindsnelheidsmeters terwyl die lem en ratkas belastings gemeet is met rekstrokies. Metings is oor ’n tydperk van 8 dae geneem. Die bevindinge toon dat ’n toename in windsnelheid ’n toename in aksiale lugvloei tempo, deur die waaier veroorsaak. ’n Afname in die gemiddelde lembelasting is waargeneem as gevolg van ’n afname in die waaier statiese druk. Daar is ontdek dat die waaierlem teen ’n natuurlike frekwensie van 6 Hz vibreer wanneer dit opgewek word deur die wisselende aerodinamiese belasting. Die aerodinamiese belasting is verkry uit die gemete data en vergelyk goed met die numeriese werk van Bredell et al. (2006a). Daar is ook bevind dat waaier-as buigspannings en wringkragte ossileer teen die waaier se rotasiefrekwensie van 2Hz met ’n groot wringkrag wat op die as uitgeoefen word wanneer die waaier aangeskakel word. iii

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Saamgestelde materiale het baie gewilde materiale in die lugvaart- en motor industrië geword as gevolg van die gewigsbesparende voordele wat dit inhou. Kostes en ander verwerkingsprobleme het tradisioneel die wydverspreide gebruik van spesifiek termoplasties-versterkte vesels in hierdie areas verhinder. Baie van die vervaardigingsprobleme (spesifiek lang siklusse) is aangespreek met die aanvang van termoplastiese matriks materiaal soos Polyphenolien Sulfied (PPS). Hierdie materiaal voldoen ook aan die lugvaart-industrie se brand-, rook- en giftigheidstandaarde. Termoplastiese saamgestelde materiale kan byvoorbeeld gevind word op komponente in vliegtuie se binneruimtes en ook die voorste rand van die vlerke. Hierdie komponente is hoogs vatbaar vir impakskade. Die hoë sterkte en styfheid tot gewig verhoudings van saamgestelde materiale laat toe vir dun materiaal dwarssnitte. Komponente is dus kwesbaar vir uit-vlakkige impak beladings. Saamgestelde materiale kan ook intern deur hierdie beladings beskadig word en kan nie met die blote oog waargeneem kan word nie. Dit is dus nodig om die skade weens hierdie beladings tydens normale gebruik akkuraat te voorspel. Verder sal dit nuttig wees om die struktuur se gedrag te bepaal in toepassings waar byvoorbeeld passasier veiligheid krities is, soos op vliegtuig ruglenings tydens noodlandings. In hierdie studie is die potensiële vervaardigingsvoordele van termoplastiese saamgestelde materiale gedemonstreer. Daarbenewens is 'n uit-vlakkige impak deur 'n sagte liggaam herbou in 'n laboratorium omgewing. Die primêre doelwit van hierdie studie was om die impak numeries te modelleer. Vervaardigingsvoordele van `n vesel versterkte termoplastiese laminaat is gedemonstreer deur die vervaardiging van 'n konkawe, agt laag laminaat uit 'n vooraf gekonsolideerde geweefde doek. Die totale verwerkingstyd van die plat laminaat na 'n konkawe laminaat was minder as vyf minute. 'n Eenvoudige plat laminaat en 'n konkawe laminaat is onderwerp aan 'n lae snelheid impak deur 'n sagte projektiel. Die impak is gemodelleer deur die evaluering van drie modelleringsmetodes vir die saamgestelde paneel. Die evalueringskriteria het o.a. ingesluit of laminaat se volle gedrag suksesvol gemodelleer kon word met behulp van slegs 2D dop elemente. Die reaksie van die saamgestelde paneel en gepaardgaande faling is met wisselende vlakke van sukses deur die drie geëvalueerde modelle voorspel. Die faling van tussen-laminêre bindings (verwys na as delaminasie) kon nie deur enige van die modelle voorspel word nie. Twee van die modelle het egter in-vlak faling met redelike akkuraatheid voorspel. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Due to weight saving advantages composite materials have become a highly popular material in the aerospace and automotive industries. Traditionally processing difficulties and costs have been a barrier to widespread composite material use in these industries. With the advent of thermoplastic matrix materials such as Polyphenoline Sulphide (PPS) the processing difficulties (especially long cycle times) experienced with traditional thermosetting resins can be addressed while maintaining aerospace Fire-Smoke and Toxicity (FST) approval. Thermoplastic composites can for example be found on aircraft interior components and leading edges of the wings. These areas are highly susceptible to impact damage. The high strength- and stiffness to weight ratios of composites allows for thin material cross sections. This leaves the components vulnerable to out-of-plane impact loads. Composite materials may also be damaged internally by these loads, leaving the damage undetectable through visual inspections. It may therefore be necessary to predict the amount of damage a component would sustain during normal operation. Additionally, it would be useful to predict structural response of these materials in applications where passenger safety is crucial, such as aircraft seat backrests during emergency landings. In this study the potential processing benefits of thermoplastic composite materials were demonstrated. Additionally an out-of-plane impact from a soft bodied projectile was reconstructed in a laboratory environment. The primary objective was to numerically model the impact event. Processing benefits of thermoplastics were demonstrated by producing a single curvature eight layered laminate from a pre-consolidated woven sheet. The total processing time from flat panel to a single curvature panel was below five minutes. A simple flat laminate and a single curvature laminate were subjected to a low velocity drop weight impact load from a soft bodied projectile. These impact events were modelled by evaluating three modelling methods for the composite panel structural response and damage evolution. Part of the evaluation criteria included whether laminate failure could be modelled successfully using only 2D shell elements. The response of the composite panel and accompanying failure were predicted with varying levels of success by the three evaluated models. The failure of interlaminar bonds (referred to as delamination) could not be predicted by either model. However two of the models predicted in-plane failure with reasonable accuracy.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: High temperature heat sources are becoming an ever-increasing imperative in the process industry for the production of plastics, ammonia and fertilisers, hydrogen, coal-toliquid fuel and process heat. Currently, high temperature reactor (HTR) technology is capable of producing helium temperatures in excess of 950°C; however, at these temperatures, tritium, which is a radioactive contaminant found in the helium coolant stream, is able to diffuse though the steel retaining wall of the helium-to-steam heat exchanger. To circumvent this radioactivity problem, regulations require an intermediate heat exchange loop between the helium and the process heat streams. In this paper, the use of a uniquely designed sodium-charged heat pipe heat exchanger is considered, and has the distinct advantage of having almost zero exergy loss as it eliminates the intermediate heat exchange circuit. In order to investigate this novel heat pipe heat exchanger concept, a special intermediate-temperature (± 240°C) experimental heat pipe heat exchanger (HPHE) was designed. This experimental HPHE uses Dowtherm A as working fluid and has two glass windows to enable visual observation of the boiling and condensation two-phase flow processes. A high temperature air-burner supply simulates the high temperature stream, and the cold stream is provided by water from a constant-heat supply tank. This experimental apparatus can be used to evaluate the validity of steady-state and start-up transient theoretical models that have been developed. This paper will highlight the special design aspects of this HPHE, the theoretical model and the solution algorithm described. Experimental results will be compared with the theoretically calculated results. The theoretical model will then be used to predict the performance of a high temperature (sodium working fluid at 850°C) HPHE will be undertaken and conclusions and recommendation made. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hoë temperatuur hitte bronne is besig om ‘n toenemende noodsaaklikheid te raak in die proses industrie vir die vervaardiging van plastieke, ammoniak, kunsmis, waterstof, steenkool-tot-vloeibare brandstof en proses hitte. Huidige hoë temperatuur reaktor tegnologie is in staat om helium te verhit tot temperature hoër as 950°C, maar by sulke hoë temperature is die vorming van tritium, wat ‘n radioaktiewe produk is, in die helium verkoeling stroom wat deur die reaktor vloei, ‘n probleem. Die tritium is in staat om deur die staal wand van ‘n enkel fase warmte uitruiler te diffundeer. Om hierdie radioaktiewe probleem te uitoorlê, stel huidige regulasies voor dat ‘n oorgangs hitte uitruil lus gebruik raak tussen die helium en proses strome van die reaktor stelsel. In hierdie tesis word ‘n unieke natrium gevulde hitte pyp warmte uitruiler nagevors, hierdie ontwerp het die voordeel dat dit geen “exergy” verlies het omdat dit nie ‘n oorgangs hitte uitruil lus benodig nie. Hierdie unieke konsep was nagevors deur ‘n spesiale oorgangs temperatuur (± 230°C) eksperimentiële hitte pyp warmte uitruiler te ontwerp. Hierdie eksperimentiële hitte pyp warmte uitruiler gebruik Dowtherm A as oordrags medium tussen die warm en koue strome en het twee glas venters waardeur die kook en kondensasie van die oorgangs medium dop gehou kan word. ‘n Hoë temperatuur verbrander simuleer die warm stroom deur die reaktor en die koue stroom word gesimuleer deur koue water. Die eksperimentiële opstelling sal gebruik word om die tyd afhangklike en tyd onafhangklike teoretiese wiskundige modele te valideer. Hierdie tesis sal die spesiale ontwerp aspekte van die hitte pyp warmte uitruiler, teoretiese modelle en oplos algoritme te bespreek. Eksperimentiele resultate sal met die teoretiese resultate vergelyk word en dan sal die teoretiese modelle gebruik word om ‘n natrium gevulde warmte uitruiler te simuleer. Gevolgtrekkings en aanbevelings sal in die lig van die resultate verskaf word.

Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Solar Assisted Power Generation (SAPG) can be seen as a synergy of solar and fossil plants – combining the environmental benefits of the former and the scale, efficiency and reliability of the latter. SAPG offers great potential for cost effective utilization of solar energy on utility scale and could accelerate the adoption of solar thermal energy technologies in the short and medium term, especially in countries with a significant coal base and a good solar resource such as Australia, China, United States, India and South Africa. SAPG is the replacement of bled-off steam in a Regenerative Rankine power cycle. Power plant simulations were performed using weather data for Lephalale, South Africa (Matimba power station). With an increase in the solar field outlet temperature, an increase in overall solar to electric efficiency was observed, superior to a stand-alone Solar Thermal Power Plant(s) (STPP) at similar temperatures. The performance of four solar collector technologies was compared: flat plate, evacuated tube, Linear Fresnel (LF) and Parabolic Trough (PT). This comparison was limited to the normal incidence angles of irradiation. For this application, nonconcentrating technologies are not competitive. For non-normal incidence angles, annual simulations were limited to PT and LF at final feedwater heater temperatures. The actual aperture area of around 80 000 m2 was used (50 MW thermal based on LF). On an equal aperture area basis, PT outperforms LF significantly. For the conventional North-South arrangement, LF needs to be around 53% of the specific installation cost (in $/m2 aperture area) of PT to be cost competitive. A SAPG plant at Lephalale was compared to a stand-alone Solar Thermal Power Plant STPP in a good solar resource area, namely Upington, South Africa – Parabolic Trough solar collector fields of equal size were considered for both configurations. It was found that the annual electricity generated with a SAPG plant is more than 25% greater than a stand-alone STPP. If the cost of SAPG is taken as 72% of the cost of a stand-alone STPP, this translates into SAPG being 1.8 times more cost effective than stand-alone STPP. Furthermore, SAPG performs better in high electricity demand months (South African winter – May to August). Stand-alone STPP have been adopted in South Africa and are currently being built. This was achieved by the government creating an attractive environment for Independent Power Producers (IPP). Eskom, the national power supplier, is currently investigating solar boosting at existing Eskom sites. This report argues that on a national level, SAPG, specifically solar preheating of feedwater, is a more viable solution for South Africa, with both its significant coal base and good solar resource. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Son ondersteunde krag generasie (SOKG) kan gesien word as sinergie van sonkrag en fossiele brandstof aanlegte – dit voeg die omgewings voordele van die eersgenoemde en die grote, effektiwiteit en betroubaarheid van die laasgenoemde by mekaar. SOKG opper groot potensiaal vir koste effektiewe gebruik van son energie op nutsmaatskappyskaal en kan die aanvaarding van sontermiese energietegnologieë in die kort en medium termyn versnel, veral in lande met beduidende kool reserwes en goeie sonkrag voorkoms soos Australië, China, Verenigde State van Amerika, Indië en Suid-Afrika. SOKG impliseer die vervanging van aftap stoom in die regeneratiewe Rankine krag kringloop. Kragstasie simulasies was gedoen met die gebruik van weer data van Lephalale, Suid-Afrika (Matimba kragstasie). Met die toename van die sonveld uitlaat temperatuur kon oorhoofse son-na-elektrisiteit effektiwiteit vasgestel word, wat hoër is as die van alleenstaande sontermiese krag stasie (STKS) by soortgelyke temperature. Die effektiwiteit van vier son kollekteerder tegnologieë was vergelyk: plat plaat, vakuum buis, lineêre Fresnel (LF) en paraboliese trog (PT). Die vergelyking was beperk tot normale inval van bestraling. Vir hierdie toepassing is nie-konsentreerende tegnologie nie mededingend nie. Vir nie-normale inval hoeke was jaarlange simulasies beperk tot PT en LF by finale voedingswater temperatuur. Die werklike opening area van omtrent 80 000 m2 was gebruik (50 MW termies gebaseer op LF). By gelyke opening area, uitpresteer PT LF beduidend. Vir die gebruiklike Noord-Suid rankskikking benodig LF omtrent 53% van die spesifieke installasie kostes (in $/m2 opening area) van PT om kostes mededingend te kan wees. ‘n SOKG aanleg by Lephalale was vergelyk met alleenstaande STKS in die goeie son voorkoms gebied van Upington, Suid-Afrika – Paraboliese trog kollekteerder velde van gelyke grote was oorweeg vir al twee konfigurasies. Dit was gevind dat die jaarlikse elektrisiteit gegenereer vanaf SOKG meer as 25% is as die van alleenstaande STKS. Indien SOKG oorweeg word met 72% van die kostes van alleenstaande STKS, dan beteken dit dat SOKG 1.8 keer meer koste effektief is as alleenstade STKS. Verder, SOKG presteer beter in die hoer elektrisiteitsnavraag maande (Suid- Afrikaanse winter – May tot Augustus). Alleenstaande STKS is gekies vir Suid-Afrika en word tans gebou. Dit is bereik deur dat die regering ‘n aantreklike omgewing geskep het vir onafhanglike krag produsente. Eskom ondersoek tans SOKG by bestaande Eskom persele. Hierdie verslag beweer dat op nasionale/Eskom vlak, SOKG, besonders son voorverhitting van voedingswater, meer haalbare oplossing is vir Suid-Afrika met sy beduidende koolreserwes en goeie son voorkoms.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In this study we consider the lack of rotational invariance of three different population based optimization methods, namely the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm, the differential evolution (DE) algorithm and the continuous-parameter genetic algorithm (CPGA). We then propose rotationally invariant versions of these algorithms. We start with the PSO. The so-called classical PSO algorithmis known to be variant under rotation, whereas the linear PSO is rotationally invariant. This invariance however, comes at the cost of lack of diversity, which renders the linear PSO inferior to the classical PSO. The previously proposed so-called diverse rotationally invariant (DRI) PSO is an algorithm that aims to combine both diversity and invariance. This algorithm is rotationally invariant in a stochastic sense only. What is more, the formulation depends on the introduction of a random rotation matrix S, but invariance is only guaranteed for ‘small’ rotations in S. Herein, we propose a formulation which is diverse and strictly invariant under rotation, if still in a stochastic sense only. To do so, we depart with the linear PSO, and then we add a self-scaling random vector with a standard normal distribution, sampled uniformly from the surface of a n-dimensional unit sphere. For the DE algorithm, we show that the classic DE/rand/1/bin algorithm, which uses constant mutation and standard crossover, is rotationally variant. We then study a previously proposed rotationally invariant DE formulation in which the crossover operation takes place in an orthogonal base constructed using Gramm-Schmidt orthogonalization. We propose two new formulations by firstly considering a very simple rotationally invariant formulation using constant mutation and whole arithmetic crossover. This rudimentary formulation performs badly, due to lack of diversity. We then introduce diversity into the formulation using two distinctly different strategies. The first adjusts the crossover step by perturbing the direction of the linear combination between the target vector and the mutant vector. This formulation is invariant in a stochastic sense only. We add a self-scaling random vector to the unaltered whole arithmetic crossover vector. This formulation is strictly invariant, if still in a stochastic sense only. In this study we consider the lack of rotational invariance of three different population based optimization methods, namely the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm, the differential evolution (DE) algorithm and the continuous-parameter genetic algorithm (CPGA). We then propose rotationally invariant versions of these algorithms. We start with the PSO. The so-called classical PSO algorithmis known to be variant under rotation, whereas the linear PSO is rotationally invariant. This invariance however, comes at the cost of lack of diversity, which renders the linear PSO inferior to the classical PSO. The previously proposed so-called diverse rotationally invariant (DRI) PSO is an algorithm that aims to combine both diversity and invariance. This algorithm is rotationally invariant in a stochastic sense only. What is more, the formulation depends on the introduction of a random rotation matrix S, but invariance is only guaranteed for ‘small’ rotations in S. Herein, we propose a formulation which is diverse and strictly invariant under rotation, if still in a stochastic sense only. To do so, we depart with the linear PSO, and then we add a self-scaling random vector with a standard normal distribution, sampled uniformly from the surface of a n-dimensional unit sphere. For the DE algorithm, we show that the classic DE/rand/1/bin algorithm, which uses constant mutation and standard crossover, is rotationally variant. We then study a previously proposed rotationally invariant DE formulation in which the crossover operation takes place in an orthogonal base constructed using Gramm-Schmidt orthogonalization. We propose two new formulations by firstly considering a very simple rotationally invariant formulation using constant mutation and whole arithmetic crossover. This rudimentary formulation performs badly, due to lack of diversity. We then introduce diversity into the formulation using two distinctly different strategies. The first adjusts the crossover step by perturbing the direction of the linear combination between the target vector and the mutant vector. This formulation is invariant in a stochastic sense only. We add a self-scaling random vector to the unaltered whole arithmetic crossover vector. This formulation is strictly invariant, if still in a stochastic sense only. For the CPGA we show that a standard CPGA using blend crossover and standard mutation, is rotationally variant. To construct a rotationally invariant CPGA it is possible to modify the crossover operation to be rotationally invariant. This however, again results in loss of diversity. We introduce diversity in two ways: firstly using a modified mutation scheme, and secondly, following the same approach as in the PSO and the DE, by adding a self-scaling random vector to the offspring vector. This formulation is strictly invariant, albeit still in a stochastic sense only. Numerical results are presented for the variant and invariant versions of the respective algorithms. The intention of this study is not the contribution of yet another competitive and/or superior population based algorithm, but rather to present formulations that are both diverse and invariant, in the hope that this will stimulate additional future contributions, since rotational invariance in general is a desirable, salient feature for an optimization algorithm. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie studie bestudeer ons die gebrek aan rotasionele invariansie van drie verskillende populasiegebaseerde optimeringsmetodes, met name die partikel-swerm optimerings (PSO) algoritme, die differensi¨ele evolusie (DE) algoritme en die kontinue-parameter genetiese algoritme (KPGA). Ons stel dan rotasionele invariante weergawes van hierdie algoritmes voor. Ons beginmet die PSO. Die sogenaamde klassieke PSO algoritme is bekend dat dit variant is onder rotasie, terwyl die lineˆere PSO rotasioneel invariant is. Hierdie invariansie lei tot ’n gebrek aan diversiteit in die algoritme, wat beteken dat die lineˆere PSO minder goed presteer as die klassieke PSO. Die voorheen voorgestelde sogenaamde diverse rotasionele invariante (DRI) PSO is ’n algoritme wat beoog om beide diversiteit en invariansie te kombineer. Hierdie algoritme is slegs rotasioneel invariant in ’n stogastiese sin. Boonop is die formulering afhanklik van ’n willekeurige rotasie matriks S, maar invariansie is net gewaarborg vir ’klein’ rotasies in S. In hierdie studie stel ons ’n formulering voor wat divers is en streng invariant onder rotasie, selfs al is dit steeds net in ’n stogastiese sin. In hierdie formulering, vertrek ons met die lineˆere PSO, en voeg dan ’n self-skalerende ewekansige vektor met ’n standaard normaalverdeling by, wat eenvormig van die oppervlakte van ’n n-dimensionele eenheid sfeer geneem word. Vir die DE algoritme toon ons aan dat die klassieke DE/rand/1/bin algoritme, wat gebruik maak van konstante mutasie en standaard kruising rotasioneel variant is. Ons bestudeer dan ’n voorheen voorgestelde rotasionele invarianteDE formulering waarin die kruisingsoperasie plaasvind in ’n ortogonale basis wat gekonstrueer wordmet behulp van die Gramm-Schmidt ortogonalieseringsproses. Verder stel ons dan twee nuwe formulerings voor deur eerstens ’n baie eenvoudige rotasionele invariante formulering te oorweeg, wat konstante mutasie en volledige rekenkundige kruising gebruik. Hierdie elementˆere formulering onderpresteer as gevolg van die afwesigheid van diversiteit. Ons voeg dan diversiteit by die formulering toe, deur gebruik te maak van twee afsonderlike strategie ¨e. Die eerste verander die kruisings stap deur die rigting van die lineˆere kombinasie tussen die teiken vektor en die mutasie vektor te perturbeer. Hierdie formulering is slegs invariant in ’n stogastiese sin. In die ander formulering, soos met die nuwe rotasionele invariante PSO, voeg ons bloot ’n self-skalerende ewekansige vektor by die onveranderde volledige rekenkundige kruisingsvektor. Hierdie formulering is streng invariant onder rotasie, selfs al is dit steeds net in ’n stogastiese sin. Vir die KPGA wys ons dat die standaard KPGA wat gemengde kruising en standaard mutasies gebruik, rotasioneel variant is. Om ’n rotasionele invariante KPGA te konstrueer is dit moontlik om die kruisingsoperasie aan te pas. Dit veroorsaak weereens ’n verlies aan diversiteit. Ons maak die algoritmes divers op twee verskillende maniere: eerstens deur gebruik te maak van ’n gewysigde mutasie skema, en tweedens deur die selfde aanslag te gebruik as in die PSO en die DE, deur ’n self-skalerende ewekansige vektor by die nageslag vektor te voeg. Hierdie formulering is streng invariant onder rotasie, selfs al is dit steeds net in ’n stogastiese sin. Numeriese resultate word vir die variante en invariante weergawe van die onderskeie algoritmes verskaf. Die doel van hierdie studie is nie die bydrae van bloot nog ’n kompeterend en/of beter populasiegebaseerde optimeringsmetode nie, maar eerder om formulerings voor te lê wat beide divers en invariant is, met die hoop dat dit in die toekoms bykomende bydraes sal stimuleer, omdat rotasionele invariansie in die algemeen ’n aantreklike, belangrike kenmerk is vir ’n optimerings algoritme.

Thesis (MScEng) -- Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa has a signi cant potential resource for electrical power generation in the Agulhas Current on the southeast coast. The Ocean Current Energy Convertor studied in this project was designed to generate power from this current. The feasibility of this device was investigated by analysing the dynamic stability and controllability of the convertor, when acted upon by hydrodynamic forces while harvesting energy from the current. A simulation model was developed to predict the dynamic behaviour using the Simulink software suite. A scale model of the prototype was built and tested in the Towing Tank at Stellenbosch University, and the experimental results were compared against the simulation results. A control algorithm was designed, using the mathematical model, to control the roll angle and deployment depth. The control algorithm was tested in simulation. The results indicated that the simulation model accurately predicted the behaviour of the prototype in testing, and results showed that the device is both stable and controllable. It was concluded that this OCEC design concept warrants further investigation. The recommendations are that the experimental model be improved to ensure reliable experimental results, that further complexity be added to the simulation model, and that the control algorithm be tested on the improved prototype in the towing tank. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Agulhas-seestroom aan die suidooskus van Suid-Afrika bied 'n aansienlike potensiële hulpbron vir elektriese kragopwekking. Die seestroomenergieomsetter (SEO) wat in hierdie projek bestudeer is was ontwikkel om krag uit hierdie seestroom te genereer. Die doenlikheid van hierdie toestel is ondersoek deur die dinamiese stabiliteit en beheerbaarheid van die omsetter onder die invloed van hidrodinamiese kragte te analiseer terwyl dit energie van die stroom inwin. 'n Simulasiemodel is met behulp van Simulink-sagteware ontwikkel om die dinamiese gedrag te voorspel. 'n Skaalmodel van die prototipe was gebou en in die sleeptenk by Universiteit Stellenbosch getoets en die eksperimentele resultate met die simulasie se resultate vergelyk. 'n Beheer-algoritme is daarna ontwerp, deur middel van die wiskundige model, om die rolhoek en diepte van ontplooiing te beheer.Hierdie algoritme is tydens simulasie getoets. Die resultate het aangedui dat die simulasiemodel akkuraat die gedrag van die prototipe tydens toetse voorspel het, en die resultate het gewys dat die toestel beide stabiel en beheerbaar is. Die gevolgtrekking is gemaak dat die SEO se ontwerpkonsep verdere studie regverdig. Die aanbevelings is dat die eksperimentele model verbeter word om betroubare eksperimentele resultate te verseker, dat verdere kompleksiteit by die simulasiemodel gevoeg word, en dat die beheer-algoritme op die verbeterde model in die sleeptenk getoets word.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Axial flow fan arrays form part of air-cooled steam condensers in direct drycooled power plants. This dissertation investigates the performance of axial flow fans when located at the perimeter of a fan array. The perimeter (or edge) fans may experience a reduction in air flow through the fan due to the prevalence of distorted inlet conditions upstream of the fan. The reduction in air flow leads to a reduction in the heat transfer capability of the steam condenser and a consequent reduction in the electricity output of the power plant. Due to the physical size of an air-cooled condenser, full-scale experiments are often impractical and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is used to model its performance under various conditions. To limit the size of the CFD model the axial flow fans in the CFD analysis are represented by means of simplified methods. Three different simplified methods are presented and applied to a CFD model of a single axial flow fan, namely the pressure jump method (PJM), actuator disc method (ADM) and extended actuator disc method (EADM). The results are compared to experimental values. The comparison highlights the limitations of the models: The ADM fails to model fan performance correctly at low flow rates, while the PJM ignores the variation in fan blade properties at different locations within the fan rotor. The EADM is presented as an improvement on both the other two models. A multiple fan test facility is constructed, consisting of three 630 mm diameter fans extracting air from a common inlet chamber. The inlet chamber is constructed in such a way that one of the three fans act as the perimeter (edge) fan. The floor of the inlet chamber can be adjusted to increase or reduce the inlet flow distortion experienced by the edge fan. Six different fan configurations are tested in the position of the edge fan and an empirical method is derived by which the volumetric effectiveness of an edge fan can be predicted. The experimental results are compared to CFD results for the same facility using the three different simplified simulation methods investigated previously. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements are also performed upstream of the edge fan and the velocity profiles at the inlet of the fan are compared to the profiles obtained numerically. The comparisons show that the EADM predicts the performance of the edge fan more accurately than the ADM en PJM. The effect of adding a walkway and removing the bell mouth upstream of the edge fan was investigated using the EADM. The results are used to show the location of the loss mechanisms upstream of the edge fan. The addition of a walkway moves the location of the pressure loss away from the edge fan bell mouth towards the edge of the walkway. Consequently the distortion directly upstream of the edge fan is reduced and its volumetric effectiveness increased. The effect of removing the edge fan’s bell mouth is similar to the effect of adding a walkway upstream of the edge fan. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Aksiaalwaaiermatrikse vorm deel van lugverkoelde kondensors in direk droëverkoelde kragstasies. Hierdie verhandeling ondersoek die werkverrigting van aksiaalwaaiers wat geleë is op die rand van ‘n groot waaiermatriks. Die randwaaiers kan ’n vermindering in deurvloei ondervind as gevolg van versteurde inlaattoestande stroom-op vanaf die waaier. Die vermindering in lugvloei lei tot ’n vermindering in die warmetoordagvermoë van die stoomkondensor en ’n gepaardgaande afname in die elektrisiteitslewering van die kragstasie. As gevolg van die fisiese grootte van die lugverkoelde kondensor is volskaalse eksperimente gewoonlik onprakties en word berekeningsvloeimeganika (BVM) gebruik om die werking van die aanleg onder verskeie toestande te modelleer. Ten einde die grootte van die BVM model te beperk, word die aksiaalwaaiers in so ‘n BVM analiese voorgestel met behulp van vereenvoudigde metodes. Drie verskillende vereenvoudigde metodes word aangebied en toegepas op ‘n BVM model van ‘n enkelwaaier, naamlik die druksprongmetode, die aksieskyfmetode en die verlengde aksieskyfmetode. Die resultate word vergelyk met eksperimentele waardes. Die vergelyking benadruk die beperkings van die modelle: Die aksieskyfmetode kan nie die werking van die waaier akkuraat voorspel by lae vloeie nie en die druksprongmetode ignoreer die variasie in lemeienskappe op verskillende liggings binne-in die waaierrotor. Die verlengde aksieskyfmetode word voorgestel as ‘n verbetering op die ander twee metodes. ‘n Veelvuldige waaiertoetsfasiliteit is saamgestel, bestaande uit drie 630 mm deursnee waaiers wat lug uit ’n gemeenskaplike inlaatkamer suig. Die inlaatkamer is so saamgestel dat een van die waaiers in die fasiliteit ‘n randwaaier verteenwoordig. Die vloerhoogte van die inlaatkamer kan aangepas word om die inlaatversteuring wat deur die raandwaaier ondervind word te vermeerder of te verminder. Ses verskillende waaierkonfigurasies is getoets in die randwaaierposisie. ‘n Empiriese metode waarmee die volumetriese effektiwiteit van ‘n randwaaier voorspel kan word is afgelei. Die eksperimentele resultate word vergelyk met ooreenstemmende BVM resultate vir dieselfde fasiliteit deur gebruik te maak van die drie verskillende vereenvoudigde metodes wat vroeër ondersoek is. Partikelbeeld snelheidsmetings word ook stroom-op vanaf die randwaaier uitgevoer en die snelheidsprofiele by die inlaat van die waaier word vergelyk met profiele wat numeries bereken word. Die vergelykings wys dat die verlengde aksieskyfmetode die werkverrigting van ’n aksiaalwaaier meer akkuraat voorspel as die aksieskyf- of druksprongmetodes. Die effek van die installering van ‘n loopvlak en die verwydering van die randwaaier se inlaatmondstuk word ondersoek met behulp van BVM deur gebruik te maak van die verlengde aksieskyfmetode. Die resultate word spesifiek gebruik om die ligging van die verliesmeganismes stroom-op vanaf die randwaaier aan te dui. Die resultate wys dat die installering van ‘n loopvlak die ligging van die drukverlies wegneem vanaf die rand van die waaierinlaat na die rand van die loopvlak. Dit verminder die inlaatversteuring stroom-op vanaf die randwaaier en die volumetriese effektiwiteit word verhoog. Die verwydering van die randwaaier se inlaatmondstuk het ‘n soortgelyke effek as die installering van ‘n loopvlak stroom-op vanaf die randwaaier.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Second-generation bioethanol is an alternative transportation fuel currently being investigated whereby cellulose, specifically lignocellulosic (woody) portions, of any plant mass can be converted to ethanol. To date, the technology had only been successfully implemented with demonstration scale facilities. Despite intensive research efforts at laboratory scale, no-one is certain what the secondary effects of scale-up to large systems are. The objective of this project was to develop threedimensional numerical models of a laboratory scale fermenter which could predict the effects of particulate mixing and reaction kinetics for future scale-up investigations. A numerical model of the reaction kinetics for simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of Avicel (microcrystalline cellulose) particles to ethanol is presented. The novelty of this model is the separation of the two primary cellulase enzyme-kinetics, which generated the capability to predict the heterogeneous behaviour of the enzyme-substrate interactions. This model improves the understanding of these systems while maintaining sufficient simplicity for implementation alongside a commercial computational fluid dynamics environment. Effects of the various fermentation medium constituents and the influence of each on the dynamic viscosity of the medium were also investigated. Results indicated that particle volume fraction had the dominant effect on the apparent dynamic viscosity resulting in further research of the particle properties. Due to the irregular shapes of Avicel particles, tests were conducted to determine drag and settling behaviour, which led to the development and modification of models to account for these phenomena. This investigation is unique as it allows a more accurate calculation of particle transportation through a three-dimensional environment including the effects of natural packing density. At lower particle volume fraction the concentration of ethanol and glycerol had the greatest effect on the apparent dynamic viscosity and was calculated from models obtained from literature. Validation of the physics and the incorporation thereof in the simulations resulted in the modification of various generic models which either improved numerical stability or accuracy, or both. Contributions included a modified form of the pressure force model, which proved significantly more stable and accurate than previous models proposed in literature. The models developed for capturing the effects of particles on the apparent dynamic viscosity proved effective for this specific substrate. Results from cross-coupling the reaction models with computational fluid dynamic simulations provide a novel approach to capturing the secondary effect of substrate conversion and particle distribution on the performance of the fermentation vessels. This is the first time where that biological reactions were successfully combined with particle dynamics and fluid flow fields to investigate the secondary effects which occur in fermenters. This work served as a foundation for future research and development within the bioethanol field with significant potential for expansion into other biochemical disciplines. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Tweede-generasie bioetanol is ’n alternatiewe vervoerbrandstof wat tans ondersoek word waar sellulose, spesifiek lignosellulosiese (houtagtige) gedeeltes, van enige plantmassa na etanol omgesit kan word. Tot op hede was die tegnologie slegs suksesvol geïmplimenteer in demonstrasieskaal fasiliteite. Ten spyte van intensiewe navorsingpogings op laboratoriumskaal, is niemand seker wat die sekondêre effekte van die opskaal tot groot stelsels sal wees nie. Die doelwit van die projek was om drie-dimensionele modelle te ontwikkel van ’n laboratoriumskaal fermentor wat die effekte van partikulêre vermenging en reaksiekinetika kan voorspel vir toekomstige opskaal navorsing. ’n Numeriese model van die reaksiekinetika vir gelyktydige versuikering en fermentasie van Avicel (mikrokristallyne sellulose) partikels tot etanol word aangebied. Die oorspronklikheid van die model is geleë in die skeiding van die twee primêre sellulase ensiemkinetika, wat lei tot die vermoë om die heterogene gedrag van die ensiem-substraat interaksies te voorspel. Hierdie model verbeter die kennis van die stelsels, terwyl voldoende eenvoud behoue bly vir implementering parallel aan kommersiële berekeningsvloeidinamika sagteware. Effekte van die verskillende bestanddele van die fermentasiemedium en die invloed van elk op die dinamiese viskositeit van die medium is ook ondersoek. Resultate dui aan dat partikel volume fraksie die dominante invloed op die skynbare dinamiese viskositeit het, wat gelei het tot verdere ondersoek van die partikel eienskappe. As gevolg van die onreëlmatige vorms van Avicel partikels, is toetse gedoen om die sleur-en uitsakkingsgedrag te bepaal, wat gelei het tot die ontwikkeling en aanpassing van modelle om hierdie verskynsels in ag te neem. Hierdie ondersoek is uniek, want dit laat meer akkurate berekening van partikelvervoer deur ’n drie-dimensionele omgewing toe, insluitend die effekte van natuurlike verpakkingsdigtheid. By laer partikel volume fraksie het die konsentrasie van etanol en gliserol die grootste effek op die skynbare dinamiese viskositeit gehad en was bereken vanaf modelle in die literatuur. Bevestiging van die fisika en die insluiting daarvan in die simulasies het gelei tot die aanpasing van verskillende generiese modelle wat óf numeriese stabiliteit óf akkuraatheid óf beide verbeter. Bydraes gemaak sluit ’n aangepaste vorm van die drukkragmodel in, wat heelwat meer stabiel en akkuraat was as die vorige modelle voorgestel in die literatuur. Die modelle wat ontwikkel is om die effek van partikels op die skynbare viskositeit vas te vang, was effektief bewys vir hierdie spesifieke substraat. Resultate van die kruiskoppeling van inligting vanaf die reaksiemodelle met berekeningsvloeidinamika simulasies lewer ’n nuwe benadering tot die bepaling van die sekondêre effek van substraatomskakeling en partikeldistribusie op die uitvoering van die fermentasie toestel. Hierdie is die eerste poging om biologiese reaksies met partikel dinamika en vloeivelde te kombineer om die sekondêre effekte wat in fermenter plaasvind, te ondersoek. Hierdie werk dien as ’n grondslag vir toekomstige navorsing en ontwikkeling binne die bioetanolveld, met beduidende potensiaal vir uitbreiding na ander biochemiese dissiplines.