Microgrids form small-scale power grids with distributed energy resources such as wind generators, photovoltaic panels, fuel cells, energy storage systems, and controllable loads. The characteristics of a microgrid include bi-directional power flows, flexible modes of operation, as well as variable short circuit currents. Due to the weak injection of fault current and short period nature, the connection of microgrids to the distribution systems or sub-transmission systems creates serious challenges to existing over-current based protection systems. The protection of microgrids is gaining substantial attentions in recent years because of large-scale deployment of microgrids and its impacts to existing electricity infrastructures. New protection methodologies and solutions applicable for microgrids are studied and presented in this dissertation. To effectively protect the microgrids, three areas of study are conducted based on the latest technologies in the protection systems, computing platforms, and communication networks. Firstly, the Point of Interconnection protection using distance protection with residual voltage compensation method for an ungrounded microgrid network is presented. This study resolves the challenging issues of detecting single-phase-to-ground fault at the interconnection line of microgrid. It can correctly identify the fault, properly measure the fault location, and timely isolate the fault without jeopardizing the stability of downstream microgrid system and/or causing dangerous overvoltage and arcing conditions. Secondly, the distribution substation busbar protection using the synchrophasor data is studied to realize fast and reliable bus differential protection. Comparing with other busbar protection schemes, this method has the advantages of low cost, easy configuration, fast expansion, and no circuit limitation. Lastly, an adaptive protection solution for distribution feeders with microgrids is developed and tested using RTDS. This study focuses on providing a framework for microgrid over-current coordination to improve the reliability and dependability of the protected network. Overall, the research studies presented in this dissertation will provide the power industries with new insights and methodologies on microgrid protection. Together with other protection functions, the proposed methods can provide effective microgrid protection against dangerous faults, reduce arcing condition, increase the possibility of seamless islanding, and consequently improve the reliability and resilience of microgrids.

Over the course of the last decade, IEC 61850 has become the leading standard for electrical substation automation the world over. This thesis presents the work done towards implementing an IEC 61850 sampled values based line protection Intelligent Electronics Device (IED) on a desktop computer. This IED is capable of subscribing, decoding and processing the sampled values published by a source to be used in line protection algorithms. The novel hybrid line protection algorithm implemented in the IED combines a distance protection scheme with a transients-based unit protection method that uses sampled values complying with IEC 61850-9-2-LE. Application of the line protection relay for protecting a series compensated transmission line was examined using hardware-in-the-loop simulations. Results indicate that (i) the implemented algorithms are robust and reliable, and (ii) the class of transients based protection algorithms examined in this thesis can be successfully implemented with IEC 61850 sampled values. / October 2016

Este trabalho apresenta a aplicação de Redes Neurais Artificiais (RNAs) como um classificador de padrões para as operações do relé de distância. As grandezas analisadas referem-se aos valores trifásicos de tensões e correntes do sistema elétrico, incluindo a seqüência zero. Para a obtenção dos valores amostrais da linha de transmissão em condição faltosa, valores estes utilizados como entradas para as arquiteturas de RNAs em seus processos de treinamento e teste, utilizou-se do software Alternative Transients Program - ATP. Para se observar o desempenho do relé de distância implementado, duas formas de análise dos valores trifásicos foram adotadas. Uma utilizando-se como entrada os cinco valores amostrados em meio ciclo pós-falta do sinal analisado e a segunda, pelo emprego da magnitude dos fatores de tensões e correntes, incluindo a seqüência zero. A função da rede neural implementada é de capturar o conhecimento da correta atuação do relé de distância, para posteriormente atuar com melhores resultados frente às situações de operações que por ventura venham a ocorrer. Para criar, treinar (obtenção dos pesos associados como saída) e testar as arquiteturas de RNAs, utilizou-se do software Stuttgard Neural Network Simulator (SNNS). Dos resultados encontrados comenta-se o desempenho do relé de distância implementado frente às duas abordagens anteriormente descritas. Do uso de RNAs como um classificador de padrões, observa-se uma melhora no desempenho do sistema de proteção, alcançando-se uma definição de 96% do comprimento da linha de transmissão como sendo a zona de proteção primária do relé de distância digital. / This work demonstrates the use of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) theory as a pattern classifier for a distance relay operation. The approach utilizes the magnitudes of the three phase voltage and current phasors (including the zero sequence) as inputs. The Alternative Transients Program (ATP) software is used to generate data for the transmission line in a faulted condition both for the training process and the tests. Two different types of ANN architecture, concerning the input data, are taken into account. The main objective was to analyse the relay performance considering each of them. One approach utilises the five post-fault samples as inputs. The other one employs the magnitudes of the three phase voltage and current phasors (including the zero sequence) as inputs. The implemented neural network should capture the knowledge for the correct relay operation facing the different network conditions. A comparison of how well the schemes performed is carried out. The Stuttgard Neural Network Simulator (SNNS) was used to create the ANN diagram, train it and obtain the weights as an output. An improvement concerning the use of ANNs for distance protection purposes is found. Through the use of ANN as a pattern classifier, a reach of 96% of the transmission line length as the relay primary protection zone was implemented in this work.

O objetivo de um sistema elétrico de potência é gerar energia elétrica e fornecer continuamente esta energia aos usuários finais dentro de padrões de qualidade aceitáveis. Neste contexto, diferentes aplicações usando algoritmos genéticos (AGs) para resolver problemas relacionados a sistemas elétricos de potência são apresentadas neste trabalho. A estimação de harmônicos, estudos relativos aos relés de freqüência e aplicações da proteção de distância são os assuntos investigados nesta tese. Para análise harmônica foram consideradas freqüências em sistemas de potência de até a vigésima quinta ordem, as quais foram estimadas pelos AGs e comparadas àquelas resultantes da análise quando da aplicação da Transformada Discreta de Fourier (TDF). Com respeito aos relés de freqüência, o objetivo foi estimar a amplitude, freqüência e ângulo de fase para diversas situações de formas de ondas utilizando uma nova estrutura que possa ser implementada dispondo em FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate Array). Finalmente, aplicados à proteção de distância, o principal propósito dos AGs foi identificar os fasores fundamentais da tensão e corrente e, então, calcular a impedância da linha medida pelo relé de distância associado. Cabe ressaltar que estes resultados também foram comparados ao método clássico da TDF. Todas as três abordagens foram formuladas como problemas de otimização, com objetivo de minimizar o erro estimado das variáveis envolvidas. Os resultados dessas aplicações mostram que o desempenho global dos Algoritmos Genéticos foi altamente satisfatório considerando-se as precisões das respostas encontradas. / The aim of electric power systems is to generate electricity and to deliver it continuously to the end-user in an acceptable standard. Therefore, different applications using genetic algorithms (GAs) to solve electric power system problems are presented in this work. Harmonic estimation, frequency relays and distance protection are the subjects investigated in this thesis. Concerning harmonic analysis, the ones up to the 25th order were considered in this work. They were estimated by GAs and compared to results obtained from the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) technique. Concerning frequency relays, the main objective was to estimate the amplitude, frequency and phase angle of waveforms using a new structure capable to be implemented in a FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array). Finally, concerning distance protection, the main purpose was use the GAs to identify the fundamental voltage and current phasors and to calculate the line impedance seen by the distance relay. These results were also compared to those obtained from the classic DFT method. These three problems were formulated as an optimization problem, and the objective was to minimize the estimation error. The results from these applications show that the global performance of the genetic algorithms was highly satisfactory concerning the precision of the responses.

O objetivo de um sistema elétrico de potência é gerar energia elétrica e fornecer continuamente esta energia aos usuários finais dentro de padrões de qualidade aceitáveis. Neste contexto, diferentes aplicações usando algoritmos genéticos (AGs) para resolver problemas relacionados a sistemas elétricos de potência são apresentadas neste trabalho. A estimação de harmônicos, estudos relativos aos relés de freqüência e aplicações da proteção de distância são os assuntos investigados nesta tese. Para análise harmônica foram consideradas freqüências em sistemas de potência de até a vigésima quinta ordem, as quais foram estimadas pelos AGs e comparadas àquelas resultantes da análise quando da aplicação da Transformada Discreta de Fourier (TDF). Com respeito aos relés de freqüência, o objetivo foi estimar a amplitude, freqüência e ângulo de fase para diversas situações de formas de ondas utilizando uma nova estrutura que possa ser implementada dispondo em FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate Array). Finalmente, aplicados à proteção de distância, o principal propósito dos AGs foi identificar os fasores fundamentais da tensão e corrente e, então, calcular a impedância da linha medida pelo relé de distância associado. Cabe ressaltar que estes resultados também foram comparados ao método clássico da TDF. Todas as três abordagens foram formuladas como problemas de otimização, com objetivo de minimizar o erro estimado das variáveis envolvidas. Os resultados dessas aplicações mostram que o desempenho global dos Algoritmos Genéticos foi altamente satisfatório considerando-se as precisões das respostas encontradas. / The aim of electric power systems is to generate electricity and to deliver it continuously to the end-user in an acceptable standard. Therefore, different applications using genetic algorithms (GAs) to solve electric power system problems are presented in this work. Harmonic estimation, frequency relays and distance protection are the subjects investigated in this thesis. Concerning harmonic analysis, the ones up to the 25th order were considered in this work. They were estimated by GAs and compared to results obtained from the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) technique. Concerning frequency relays, the main objective was to estimate the amplitude, frequency and phase angle of waveforms using a new structure capable to be implemented in a FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array). Finally, concerning distance protection, the main purpose was use the GAs to identify the fundamental voltage and current phasors and to calculate the line impedance seen by the distance relay. These results were also compared to those obtained from the classic DFT method. These three problems were formulated as an optimization problem, and the objective was to minimize the estimation error. The results from these applications show that the global performance of the genetic algorithms was highly satisfactory concerning the precision of the responses.

Este trabalho apresenta a aplicação de Redes Neurais Artificiais (RNAs) como um classificador de padrões para as operações do relé de distância. As grandezas analisadas referem-se aos valores trifásicos de tensões e correntes do sistema elétrico, incluindo a seqüência zero. Para a obtenção dos valores amostrais da linha de transmissão em condição faltosa, valores estes utilizados como entradas para as arquiteturas de RNAs em seus processos de treinamento e teste, utilizou-se do software Alternative Transients Program - ATP. Para se observar o desempenho do relé de distância implementado, duas formas de análise dos valores trifásicos foram adotadas. Uma utilizando-se como entrada os cinco valores amostrados em meio ciclo pós-falta do sinal analisado e a segunda, pelo emprego da magnitude dos fatores de tensões e correntes, incluindo a seqüência zero. A função da rede neural implementada é de capturar o conhecimento da correta atuação do relé de distância, para posteriormente atuar com melhores resultados frente às situações de operações que por ventura venham a ocorrer. Para criar, treinar (obtenção dos pesos associados como saída) e testar as arquiteturas de RNAs, utilizou-se do software Stuttgard Neural Network Simulator (SNNS). Dos resultados encontrados comenta-se o desempenho do relé de distância implementado frente às duas abordagens anteriormente descritas. Do uso de RNAs como um classificador de padrões, observa-se uma melhora no desempenho do sistema de proteção, alcançando-se uma definição de 96% do comprimento da linha de transmissão como sendo a zona de proteção primária do relé de distância digital. / This work demonstrates the use of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) theory as a pattern classifier for a distance relay operation. The approach utilizes the magnitudes of the three phase voltage and current phasors (including the zero sequence) as inputs. The Alternative Transients Program (ATP) software is used to generate data for the transmission line in a faulted condition both for the training process and the tests. Two different types of ANN architecture, concerning the input data, are taken into account. The main objective was to analyse the relay performance considering each of them. One approach utilises the five post-fault samples as inputs. The other one employs the magnitudes of the three phase voltage and current phasors (including the zero sequence) as inputs. The implemented neural network should capture the knowledge for the correct relay operation facing the different network conditions. A comparison of how well the schemes performed is carried out. The Stuttgard Neural Network Simulator (SNNS) was used to create the ANN diagram, train it and obtain the weights as an output. An improvement concerning the use of ANNs for distance protection purposes is found. Through the use of ANN as a pattern classifier, a reach of 96% of the transmission line length as the relay primary protection zone was implemented in this work.

The increasing demand for electricity over the last few decades has not been followed by adequate growth in electric infrastructure. As a result, the reliability and safety of the electric grids are facing tremendously growing pressure. Large blackouts in the recent past indicate that sustaining system reliability and integrity turns out to be more and more difficult due to reduced transmission capacity margins and increased stress on the system. Due to the heavy loading conditions that occur when the system is under stress, the protection systems are susceptible to mis-operation. It is under such severe situations that the network cannot afford to lose its critical elements like the main generation units and transmission corridors. In addition to the slow but steady variations in the network structure over a long term, the grid also experiences drastic changes during the occurrence of a disturbance. One of the main reasons why protection relays mis-operate is due to the inability of the relays to adjust to the evolving network scenario. Such failures greatly compound the severity of the disturbance, while diminishing network integrity leading to catastrophic system-wide outages. With the advancement of Wide Area Measurement Systems (WAMS), it is now possible to redesign network protection schemes to make them more adaptive and thus improve the security of the system. Often flagged for exacerbating the events leading to a blackout, the back-up distance protection relay scheme for transmission line protection and the loss-of-field relay scheme for generator unit protection can be greatly improved from an adaptability-oriented redesign. Protection schemes in general would benefit from a power re-distribution technique that helps predict generator outputs immediately after the occurrence of a contingency. / Ph. D.

Variable renewable energy sources typically connect to the power grid through power electronic interfaces. Increased use of such sources can cause issues for conventional distance protection. The purpose of distance protection is to detect transmission line faults and trip circuit breakers accordingly in order to maintain power system stability and power quality, and to ensure the safety of equipment and humans. Conventional distance protection solutions work satisfactorily in grids dominated by synchronous generators, but it has been recognized in industry and academia that new solutions may be needed in power grids dominated by power electronics interfaced generation due to the non-linear system impacts introduced by such sources. It was the aim of this thesis project to investigate the performance of alternative solutions used toward this end, specifically time domain distance protection solutions which are immune to the dynamics of power electronics interfaced sources. Short-circuit simulations for different fault scenarios have been performed in PSCAD, utilising models with a wind farm connected via a single overhead transmission line to a grid represented by a voltage source and impedance. The PSCAD line voltages and currents were processed in Matlab where both a more conventional phasor-based algorithm and a time domain differential equation based algorithm were implemented and simulated. A tripping logic based on detecting stable fault distance estimates within the primary protection zone was used. The implemented algorithms were compared for 96 scenarios in their ability to identify the faults and fault types, estimate the fault distances, and in their tripping speed. The results show an overall better performance for the differential equation algorithm compared to the conventional phasor-based algorithm, with more successful trips, faster tripping speed and superior distance estimate convergence on the correct fault distance. Some limitations have also been identified for the differential equation algorithm such as a fault impedance trajectory in the impedance plane which can lead to incorrect trips during external faults when using conventional tripping logic. It is suggested that more research be done regarding the differential equation algorithm with the next step being further algorithm development and testing when using fault impedance estimates and a tripping zone in the impedance plane. / Variabla förnybara energikällor använder vanligtvis kraftelektronik som ett gränssnitt för kopplingen till kraftnätet och ökningen av sådana källor kan skapa problem för konventionella distansskydd. Distansskydds syfte är att detektera jord- och fasfel på kraftledningar samt att skicka utlösningssignaler till strömbrytare för att isolera felet, vilket behövs för att upprätthålla kraftnätets stabilitet, effektkvalitet samt för att säkerställa säkerhet för komponenter och människor. Konventionella distansskydd fungerar bra i kraftnät dominerade av synkrongeneratorer men det har uppmärksammats av industrin samt den akademiska världen att nya lösningar kan behövas i kraftnät som är dominerade av energikällor med kraftelektronik-gränssnitt på grund av dess olinjära dynamik. Syftet med detta examensarbete är att undersöka prestandan av alternativa algoritmer för distansskydd som kan användas mot detta ändamål, specifikt tidsdomän algoritmer som är immuna mot dynamiken introducerad av kraftelektroniken. Kortslutningssimuleringar för olika scenarion har simulerats i PSCAD modeller med en vindkraftpark kopplad i änden på kraftledningen, där spänningarna och strömmarna sparas för vidare analys. Resultaten från PSCAD simuleringar bearbetades i Matlab där både en konventionell algoritm baserad på fasvektorer samt en tidsdomän algoritm baserad på differentialekvationer har implementerats och simulerats. Den implementerade utlösningslogiken baserades på att detektera stabila estimeringar för avståendet mellan skyddsreläet och felet på kraftledningen, där utlösningssignaler skickas för stabila estimeringar detekterade inom den primära skyddszonen för reläet. De implementerade algoritmerna jämfördes i 96 olika scenarion för deras förmåga att: identifiera fel och feltypen, estimera avståndet mellan skyddsreläet och felet samt för deras utlösningstider. Resultaten visar en i överlag bättre prestanda för differentialekvations-algoritmen jämfört med den konventionella fasvektor-baserade algoritmen med fler lyckade strömbrytarutlösningar, snabbare utlösningstider samt bättre konvergens och mer korrekt lokalisering för avståndsestimeringen mellan skyddsreläet och felet. Vissa limitationer har även identifierats för differentialekvations-algoritmen, exempelvis en felimpedans-kurva i impedansplanet vilket kan leda till inkorrekta utlösningar för externa fel om ett konventionellt impedansområden används för utlösningslogiken. Det föreslås att mer forskning bör utföras kring differentialekvations-algoritmen med nästa steg att vidare utveckla algoritmen samt utföra tester vid användande av felimpedansestimeringar och en utlösningslogik baserad på impedansområden.

Dispositivos baseados em eletrônica de potência, conhecidos na literatura como Dispositivos FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) permitem aumentar a capacidade de transmissão diminuindo a margem de segurança necessária para uma operação segura do sistema elétrico de potência (SEP) sem construir novas linhas, permitindo controlar os fluxos nas linhas e assim permitindo que os contratos entre as empresas de transmissão sejam respeitados. Entre os dispositivos FACTS, o de maior versatilidade é o Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), capaz de controlar três variáveis do sistema. No entanto, a inclusão desses dispositivos traz outros problemas ao SEP, um deles, a proteção das linhas. Este trabalho apresenta uma contribuição para uma nova formulação matemática, adaptativa e compensada para a proteção de distância baseada na impedância aparente para a proteção de linhas compensadas com dispositivos UPFC. A formulação proposta se baseia em uma modelagem trifásica do sistema e na compensação da impedância aparente calculada através dos parâmetros controlados do UPFC e da estimação da impedância da falta. Resultados obtidos através da simulação exaustiva de faltas, mostram que esta formulação apresenta um excelente desempenho para a proteção de distância de linhas compensadas por dispositivos UPFC. / Power electronics-based devices, known as FACTS devices (Flexible Alternating current Transmission Systems) allow to increase transmission capacity by decreasing the safety margin required for a secure operation of the Electric Power System (EPS). It is possible without need to build new lines, allowing to control the flows in lines and thus allowing contracts between the transmission companies are respected. Among the FACTS devices, the most versatile is the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) capable of controlling three variables of the system. However, the inclusion of these devices brings other problems to the EPS, one of them, the transmission lines protection. This Thesis presents a contribution to a new mathematical formulation, adaptive and compensated for the distance protection based on the apparent impedance to protect transmission lines compensated by UPFC devices. The proposed formulation is based on a three-phase frame reference and the compensation of apparent impedance by the UPFC controlled parameters and the estimation of the fault impedance. Results obtained, through the comprehensive simulation of faults, show that it formulation present excellent performance for distance protection of transmission lines compensated by UPFC devices.

Dispositivos baseados em eletrônica de potência, conhecidos na literatura como Dispositivos FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) permitem aumentar a capacidade de transmissão diminuindo a margem de segurança necessária para uma operação segura do sistema elétrico de potência (SEP) sem construir novas linhas, permitindo controlar os fluxos nas linhas e assim permitindo que os contratos entre as empresas de transmissão sejam respeitados. Entre os dispositivos FACTS, o de maior versatilidade é o Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), capaz de controlar três variáveis do sistema. No entanto, a inclusão desses dispositivos traz outros problemas ao SEP, um deles, a proteção das linhas. Este trabalho apresenta uma contribuição para uma nova formulação matemática, adaptativa e compensada para a proteção de distância baseada na impedância aparente para a proteção de linhas compensadas com dispositivos UPFC. A formulação proposta se baseia em uma modelagem trifásica do sistema e na compensação da impedância aparente calculada através dos parâmetros controlados do UPFC e da estimação da impedância da falta. Resultados obtidos através da simulação exaustiva de faltas, mostram que esta formulação apresenta um excelente desempenho para a proteção de distância de linhas compensadas por dispositivos UPFC. / Power electronics-based devices, known as FACTS devices (Flexible Alternating current Transmission Systems) allow to increase transmission capacity by decreasing the safety margin required for a secure operation of the Electric Power System (EPS). It is possible without need to build new lines, allowing to control the flows in lines and thus allowing contracts between the transmission companies are respected. Among the FACTS devices, the most versatile is the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) capable of controlling three variables of the system. However, the inclusion of these devices brings other problems to the EPS, one of them, the transmission lines protection. This Thesis presents a contribution to a new mathematical formulation, adaptive and compensated for the distance protection based on the apparent impedance to protect transmission lines compensated by UPFC devices. The proposed formulation is based on a three-phase frame reference and the compensation of apparent impedance by the UPFC controlled parameters and the estimation of the fault impedance. Results obtained, through the comprehensive simulation of faults, show that it formulation present excellent performance for distance protection of transmission lines compensated by UPFC devices.