The relations between environmental resources and biodiversity are crucial in the proper management and conservation of grasslands. Three nature reserves were chosen around the Gauteng Province, namely Roodeplaat Nature Reserve (RNR) in Tshwane, Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve (SNR) in Heidelberg, and Abe Bailey Nature Reserve (ANR) in Carletonville. We selected three sites within RNR, SNR and ANR, and paired these with adjacent sites in private farming/grazing areas adjacent to the nature reserves. At each site, species composition, species richness and plant diversity were determined with the use of 50m x 20m Modified-Whittaker plots (MWP), making a total of eighteen plots (MWP) at the nine paired sites. Two paired sites had high Shannon-Wiener Index (H’) average values at the adjacent grazing area as compared to the nature reserve area at ANR. Roodeplaat Nature Reserve (RNR) and Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve (SNR) had two paired sites with high H’ average values in the nature reserve as compared to the adjacent grazing area. The vegetation structure was similar for the three study locations, consisting of graminoids, herbs and isolated patches of shrubs. The species composition showed similarities between ANR and SNR sites, while RNR showed different species composition. SNR soils had the highest organic carbon (OC), total Carbon (C), total Nitrogen (N), Calcium (Ca), Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg) and Sodium (Na) as compared to both ANR and RNR. Species richness had a significantly positive relationship with Organic Carbon and Total Nitrogen. Species diversity difference was detected between the nature reserves and adjacent grazing areas and the difference are likely due to a number of factors including soil properties, land disturbance and land use and management. More research is necessary to further understand the aspects impacting species richness, species diversity and species composition in grasslands. / School of Agriculture and Life Sciences / M. Sc.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Both taxonomic diversity and diversity of species interaction networks are experiencing declines as a result of agricultural intensification at habitat and landscape scales. Reversing this trend is a key conservation issue, particularly for important functional groups such as flower-visiting insects and the networks within which they interact. This is of great concern in regions of high conservation priority such as the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), known for its high level of floral and faunal endemism and exceptional species turnover. Holistic approach to conservation in agricultural landscapes involves both preservation of natural land and wildlife friendly management of the farm land to achieve conservation targets. The value of these extensive management approaches is yet to be fully assessed, especially in perennial systems such as vineyards. I examined here the effects of vineyard management and landscape context on species richness and abundance of flower-visiting insects and their species interaction networks. Possible taxon specific effects were verified. I also investigated whether vineyards under organic and conventional management homogenized insect-flower interaction networks and whether vineyards with different management practices vary in patterns of species turnover. I sampled flower-visiting insects and their interactions in organic and conventional vineyards, and in natural reference sites. Inclusion of natural reference sites enabled me to make management recommendations for patches of natural vegetation in CFR agricultural landscape. Statistical models showed taxon-specific benefit of organic farm management, and of landscape (distance to natural habitat). There was benefit to monkey beetles (Scarabaeidae) but not to bees (Apidae). Organic vineyards had a higher number of insect-flower interactions than conventional ones, but vineyards under the two types of management were similar in terms of other important network indices. However, networks of the vineyards were more nested than the natural sites, indicating that they may be potentially more stable to perturbation and random extinctions. Multivariate dispersion tests revealed insect-flower interaction networks were not homogenized by both organic and conventional vineyards across the landscapes. I also found, through additive partitioning, that organic and conventional vineyards were similar in terms of species turnover of bees and flowering plants. The findings of this study provide heuristic value to current debates on the value of vineyard habitats for insect conservation. Both organic and conventional vineyards that promote sustainable management of the non-crop floral vegetation between vineyard rows are potential solutions for conservation of flower-visiting insects and their interactions. Also, attention has to be paid to the quality and connectivity of the natural habitat patches that are within CFR agricultural landscape. Site specific management and assessment of the value of these landscape elements is important. Management approaches such as carefully controlled burning may be beneficial, as the CFR natural vegetation is a fire-driven community. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Taksonomiese diversiteit en diversiteit van spesies-interaksie netwerke ondervind beide afnames as gevolg van landboukundige intensifikasie op habitat en landskap skaal. Om die neiging terug te swaai, is ’n sleutel bewaringsaangeleentheid, veral vir belangrike funksionele groepe soos blom-besoekende insekte en die netwerke waarbinne hulle op mekaar inwerk. Dit is van groot kommer in streke met hoë bewaringsprioriteite soos in die Kaapse Floristiese Streek (KFS), bekend vir sy hoë vlak van plant- en dierendemisme en buitengewone spesies kentering. ’n Holistiese benadering tot bewaring van landboukundige landskappe behels beide die bewaring van natuurlike land en natuurlewe-vriendelike bestuur van die plaasgrond om bewaringsdoelwitte te bereik. Die waarde van hierdie ekstensiewe bestuursbenaderings moet nog volledig bepaal word, veral in meerjarige sisteme soos wingerde. Ek het die uitwerkings van wingerdbestuur en landskapsamehang op spesiesrykheid en volopheid van blombesoekende insekte en hulle spesies interaksie netwerke ondersoek. Moontlike takson-spesifieke uitwerkings is nagegaan. Ek het ook ondersoek ingestel of wingerde onder organiese en gebruiklike bestuur ooreenstemmende insek-blom interaksie netwerke met wingerde met verskillende bestuurspraktyke in patroon van spesies kentering gewissel het. Ek het blom-besoekende insekte en hulle interaksies in organiese en konvensionele wingerde, asook in natuurlike verwysingsgebiede gemonster. Insluiting van natuurlike verwysingsgebiede het my in staat gestel om bestuursvoorstelle vir gebiede van natuurlike plantegroei in KFS landboulandskappe voor te stel. Statistiese modelle toon takson-spesifieke voordeel van organiese plaasbestuur en van die landskap (afstand van natuurlike habitat) self. Daar was voordeel vir bobbejaankewers (Scarabaeidae), maar nie vir bye (Apidae) nie. Organiese wingerde het ’n groter getal insek-blom interaksies as konvensionele wingerde gehad, maar wingerde onder beide tipes van bestuur was soortgelyk in terme van ander belangrike netwerk aanduiders. Netwerke van wingerde was egter meer geklomp dan natuurlike gebiede wat aandui dat hulle potensieel meer stabiel betreffende versteuring en lukrake uitsterwings is. Multivariate verspreidingstoetse het aangetoon dat insek-blom interaksie netwerke by beide organiese en konvensionele wingerde oor landskappe nie eenvormig was nie. Ek het ook bevind deur aanvullende verdeling dat organiese en konvensionele wingerde gelykwaardig was in terme van spesies kentering van bye en blomplante. Die bevindings van hierdie studie verskaf heuristise waarde tot huidige debatte oor die waarde van wingerdhabitatte vir insekbewaring. Beide organies en konvensionele wingerde wat volhoubare bestuur van die nie-gewas plantegroei binne wingerdrye bevorder, is moontlike oplossings vir die bewaring van blom-besoekende insekte en hulle wisselwerkings. Bykomend moet aandag gegee word aan die kwaliteit en verbindings van en tussen natuurlike habitat gebiede binne die KFS landboulandskap. Plekspesifieke (plaaslike) bestuur en bepaling van die waarde van hierdie landskapelemente is belangrik. Bestuursbenaderings, soos noukeurig beheerde brand, mag voordelig wees aangesien die KFS natuurlike plantegroei ’n vuurgedrewe gemeenskap is.

Thesis (MSc (Conservation Ecology and Entomology)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / Swartland Shale Renosterveld is restricted to fertile fine-grained soils in the winter rainfall region of the Western Cape. Between 91% and 97% of this vegetation type is transformed, mostly due to agriculture. Remaining fragments have an irreplaceable conservation value due to a high richness of endemic geophytes. Information on renosterveld vegetation composition and response to disturbance is sparse. Research occurred at three sites near Wellington: Voëlvlei Provincial Nature Reserve (CapeNature), Elandsberg Private Nature Reserve (Elandsberg Farms (Pty.) Ltd.), and Krantzkop munitions factory (Armscor/Somchem) forming a contiguous fragment in the Agter- Groeneberg Conservancy. The primary research aim was to identify or ascertain patterns of plant succession in Swartland Shale Renosterveld and associated different-aged old fields (previously ploughed), with the interaction of grazing. The key research questions are: (1) What are the plant communities of unploughed renosterveld and different-aged old fields which originated in habitats of ploughed renosterveld? (2) What are the most characteristic features of the floristic and ecological relationship between the described plant communities in terms of ecological factors operating within the studied system? (3) Does total species and life-form group richness differ between natural vegetation and old fields? (4) Is life-form richness influenced by ploughing and grazing or the interaction between these disturbances? (5) Is life-form cover-abundance influenced by ploughing and grazing or the interaction between these disturbances? (6) Does alien plant species richness differ amongst seres, and with different levels of grazing intensity? A comparison of life-form richness and cover-abundance of old field vegetation was made with adjacent natural unploughed “controls”. The effects of ploughing on community structure, with the inclusion of grazing was established. These life-form richness comparisons also occur across a gradient of increasing large mammalian herbivore grazing intensity. Sampling was conducted in winter and spring using nested 1000m2 relevés. A hierarchical classification, description and floristic interpretation of renosterveld and old field vegetation were made using TWINSPAN, SYN-TAX 2000 and CANOCO. The samples were classified with TWINSPAN and two communities were described at the association level, namely: Ursinia anthemoides–Cynodon dactylon Grassland Community (with two variants) and the Pterygodio catholici–Elytropappetum rhinocerotis Shrubland Community (with two subassociations), respectively. The vegetation data were further hierachically classified using SYNTAX 2000 which revealed similar clustering of sample objects to that resulting from classification and ordination. Following ordination of sample objects with CANOCO, select groups of species were used to depict their response curves in relation to seral development. Briefly it was found that the effects of grazing vs. non-grazing was more pronounced on old fields than in unploughed vegetation. Overall total species and life-form richness was reduced by ploughing with old fields requiring a recovery period of 30 years to resemble unploughed vegetation. Keywords: Swartland Shale Renosterveld, phytosociology, vegetation patterns, life-forms, succession, disturbance, ploughing, grazing, old fields.

The ongoing war in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has caused sustained trauma on a number of levels and stressors that could easily have debilitating consequences on the mental health of Congolese citizens. The literature further reveals that immigration brings with it a host of additional stressors. The stress related to immigration, an appreciation of diverse cultural understandings of mental health, the burdens and costs of adequate mental health policy and provisioning within developing countries, are concepts that are not well understood nor fully documented. The present study explored the cultural understanding and help-seeking behaviours of Congolese immigrants in South Africa. The purpose of the study was to understand the ways in which Congolese cope with stressors related to immigration. Using SocialIdentity Theory as a partial conceptual framework, the role of acculturation processes in their understanding and help-seeking behaviours regarding mental health challenges, were examined. A platform for participants to suggest suitable ways of responding to improving the management of mental challenges in their community was provided. A qualitative approach, based on Participatory Action Research (PAR) and content analysis to explore the emerging narratives, was used with a Gauteng-based sample to gather the accounts of the lived experiences of Congolese immigrants. A snowball sampling technique enabled twenty-seven respondents to participate in one paired conversation and five focus groups. The emerging findings are critically discussed aligned to the six categories of inquiry structured by the interview schedule, namely, coping strategies since immigration, the understanding of mental health challenges, the possible impact of being immersed in the South African culture, perceptions of mental challenges and persons affected within the Congolese community, the preferred help-seeking behaviours regarding mental health challenges and, finally, their recommendations for improving the management of mental health challenges. The layered meta-analysis of the data consisted of interrogating the thematic categories, then conducting an analytical review aligned to both the pertinent research aim and objectives, as well as related theoretical positions and research findings. v | P a g e The key research question underpinning this study was formulated as follows: “Will immigrating from the DRC to South Africa change the understanding and help-seeking behaviours of Congolese?” The study drew on the processes of acculturation from Social Identity Theory to examine these processes. Participants reported experiencing the effects of acculturation but in different ways. Patterns of assimilation, separation and integration were found. The study therefore served to contribute to our understanding of the effects of acculturation with regard to the cultural understanding and help-seeking behaviours of Congolese immigrants in South Africa regarding mental health. Most significantly, the assumption of high levels of trauma and stress within this vulnerable community were unfounded. Rich and complex survival strategies have emerged requiring refinement of our knowledge about migrant communities. The strengths and relative weaknesses of the study are shared as well as a set of recommendations for future research in this domain. / Psychology / M. Sc.(Psychology)

PhD (Zoology) / Department of Zoology / Ecosystem services and disservices are important features in agro-ecosystems and both can have relevant economic impacts on farmers. While there has been much research on the value of ecosystem services, especially that of pest control by bats and birds, ecosystem disservices are often overlooked or estimated separately. Both, services and disservices, however, change with landscape and may be supported by natural vegetation. It is hence inevitable to assess them together to uncover their relative value and importance. Habitat loss and fragmentation are major threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services. Agricultural intensification can cause habitat loss and can negatively affect natural ecosystems and their services. However, the removal of natural vegetation can also reduce ecosystem disservices that origin from natural areas. This study focused on the economic trade-off between biocontrol by bats and birds and crop raiding by vervet monkeys in South African macadamia orchards, using vertebrate exclusion experiments. Crop quality and yield were assessed and extrapolated to income values. The study furthermore focused in more detail on the impact of orchard edge habitat and farm management on bats as ecosystem service providers as well as the arthropod community, which can provide both services (pollination, biocontrol) as well as disservices (crop damage). The macadamia industry is highly profitable and plantings are expanding worldwide. South Africa is currently the largest macadamia producer in the world and the study area, Levubu, holds some of the oldest macadamia plantings in the country. The subtropical climate and high annual rainfall make this area an intensively farmed landscape. Levubu lies at the foothills of the Soutpansberg, a centre of biodiversity and patches of natural vegetation wind through orchards of macadamia, avocado, banana and timber. Insect pest pressure is high in the macadamia industry, with several stink bug species (Hemiptera) and two moth species (Lepidoptera) accounting for most of the damage to the crop. Chapter One provides a detailed overlook over the South African macadamia industry, describes the major pest insect species and their impact on the crop and highlights the role of ecosystem services and disservices and the potential importance of remaining natural areas. Over three consecutive seasons, between September 2015 and May 2018, bats, birds and monkeys were excluded, using cages with nets, from a total of 96 macadamia trees. Four treatments were applied (Full, Day, Night, Control) to distinguish between effects of the different functional groups. Exclusions took place at orchard edges with natural or human-modified edge habitat to assess the impact of vicinity to natural vegetation on pest control and crop raiding. Results presented in Chapter Two showed that biocontrol by bats and birds was stronger near natural vegetation and significantly impacted crop quality as well as yield. Effects of bats and birds were still significant at human-modified edges, whereas crop raiding by monkeys is limited to the natural orchard edges. The economic impact analysis shows that the benefits of biocontrol through bats and birds outweighed the income losses due to crop-raiding monkeys. The value of bats and birds was as high as USD 5000 per hectare per year through prevented insect damage and a 60% crop increase. Crop-raiding affected the yield, which dropped by about 26% and resulted in losses of about USD 1500 per hectare. These results highlight the importance of integrating natural areas into agricultural landscapes, even if they incur the risk of being disadvantageous. Farmers need to be made aware of the enormous economic benefits. Effective crop raiding mitigation strategies still need to be researched to avoid negative association with natural areas. These can, however, possibly also limit access for biocntrol agents, like bats and birds and thereby reduce their economic impact. Especially the removal of natural areas or establishment of buffer zones of unpalatable crops between agricultural land and forests is not advisable. Integrative research in agro-ecosystems on trade-offs between a variety of ecosystem services and disservices is necessary in future, rather than assessing them separately. The bat community on macadamia farms was monitored monthly and compared between orchard edges. Stationary bat detectors were placed at each set of exclosures for two consecutive nights a month, automatically recording from sunset to sunrise. Recorded bat calls were identified manually to species level and activity converted to Miller’s activity index, which counts the number of active minutes per species per night. We analysed the activity per feeding guild over season and landscape setting, estimated species richness and diversity (Hill’s numbers) and species turnover between farms, season and landscape setting, using diversity partitioning. The bat community was mostly influenced by seasonality with season turn-over accounting for 21% of total bat diversity (21.25 species). Edge habitat on the other hand only accounted for 5%. We found higher species richness and activity in the high season compared to the low. While there was no difference in diversity in the high season between the two orchard edge types, species diversity at the human-modified edge was lower than in the natural during the low season. Natural habitat might therefore be more important in the low season, while its effect is overwritten by high food availability during the high season. Clutter-edge species furthermore were more active at the natural orchard edges than open-air feeders, which were in turn more active at human-modified edges. Both activities dropped significantly during the low season. Chapter Three concludes that the macadamia landscape is able to support a high bat species diversity, which is affected by seasonal differences, probably due to food availability. Natural areas are important to be maintained to support sensitive species, relying on clutter habitat and natural roosts. Habitat features as well as farm management can also influence arthropod communities. Visual observations took place each month for 20 minutes per tree. Observations were counted and identified to at least order level. Chapter Four concentrates on the impact of orchard edge habitat and insecticide treatment on honey bees (83% of Hymenoptera observations) abundance. Honey bees were the only taxon significantly responding to both variables, with higher abundance close to natural areas and increasing abundance with increasing time since pesticide application. Honey bees furthermore seemed to recover slightly quicker from population crashes after insecticide treatments at natural edges than they did at human-modified edges. Hymenoptera can be highly beneficial to macadamia farmers, as farmers are heavily relying on pollination by honey bees and parasitoids are known to feed on major macadamia pest insect species. These ecosystem service providers were mostly affected by habitat and management practices, which may compromise their ecosystem service provision. Although commercial bee hives are exposed throughout macadamia orchards, they do not appear to fully replace the pollination and biocontrol services provided by feral species, which can be enhanced through resource supplementation by patches of nearby natural vegetation. Chapter Five concludes with emphasizing the general importance of natural vegetation in landscape planning of agricultural areas. This study proved confidently that benefits through ecosystem services largely outweigh negative impacts of ecosystem disservices, both stemming from these natural areas. Through the inclusion, maintenance and restoration of such patches of natural vegetation, farmers can potentially increase the value and effectiveness of biocontrol by bats and birds or other services. Seasonality largely determined bat species diversity, and a general high species diversity was observed in the macadamia landscape, possibly due to a certain degree of landscape heterogeneity and high food availability. Activity patterns of clutter-edge and open-air feeding bats varied with edge habitat, while clutter-dependent bat species / NRF