The efficacy of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) is contingent on it having a design appropriate for the species it is intended to protect. Hector�s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori), a coastal delphinid endemic to New Zealand, is endangered due to bycatch in gillnets. Analyses of survival rate and population viability suggest that the Banks Peninsula population is most likely still declining despite the presence of the Banks Peninsula Marine Mammal Sanctuary (BPMMS), where gillnetting is regulated. More data on distribution and movements of dolphins are therefore required to improve the design of the BPMMS. On aerial surveys of Hector�s dolphin distribution at Banks Peninsula over three years, sightings were made up to 19 n.mi. offshore. On average, 19% of dolphins were sighted outside the BPMMS�s 4 n.mi. offshore boundary in summer, compared to 56% in winter. On similar surveys of the South Island�s west coast, all dolphins were sighted within 6 n.mi. of the coast and there was no seasonal change in distribution. At each location, Mantel tests indicated that distance offshore had the strongest and most consistent effect on distribution. However, a logistic regression model using the combined datasets suggested that distribution was most strongly defined by water depth, with all sightings made inside the 90 m isobath. Boat surveys were carried out at Banks Peninsula (2002 to 2006) to continue the long-term photo-ID project. Using the 22 year dataset, alongshore home-range of the 20 most frequently sighted dolphins was estimated by univariate kernel methods. Mean alongshore range was 49.69 km (SE = 5.29), 60% larger than the previous estimate. Fifteen percent of these individuals had ranges extending beyond the northern boundary of the BPMMS. An acoustic data logger, the T-POD, was trialled for passive acoustic monitoring of Hector�s dolphins. Simultaneous T-POD/theodolite surveys revealed that T-PODs reliably detected dolphins within 200m. No detections were made beyond 500m. To monitor inshore habitat use, T-PODs were deployed in three locations at Banks Peninsula (n = 431 days). A GLM analysis of Detection Positive Minutes (DPM) per day indicated that season had the largest effect on detection rate, with over twice as many DPMs per day in summer (x̄ = 99.8) as winter (x̄ = 47.6). The new findings on Hector�s dolphin distribution and ranging can be used to improve the design of the BPMMS. It is recommended that the offshore boundary of the BPMMS is extended to 20 n.mi. (37 km), the northern boundary is moved 12 km north and recreational gillnetting is prohibited year round. In areas where distribution of Hector�s dolphin has not been studied, the offshore boundary of MPAs should enclose the 100 m isobath.

The efficacy of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) is contingent on it having a design appropriate for the species it is intended to protect. Hector�s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori), a coastal delphinid endemic to New Zealand, is endangered due to bycatch in gillnets. Analyses of survival rate and population viability suggest that the Banks Peninsula population is most likely still declining despite the presence of the Banks Peninsula Marine Mammal Sanctuary (BPMMS), where gillnetting is regulated. More data on distribution and movements of dolphins are therefore required to improve the design of the BPMMS. On aerial surveys of Hector�s dolphin distribution at Banks Peninsula over three years, sightings were made up to 19 n.mi. offshore. On average, 19% of dolphins were sighted outside the BPMMS�s 4 n.mi. offshore boundary in summer, compared to 56% in winter. On similar surveys of the South Island�s west coast, all dolphins were sighted within 6 n.mi. of the coast and there was no seasonal change in distribution. At each location, Mantel tests indicated that distance offshore had the strongest and most consistent effect on distribution. However, a logistic regression model using the combined datasets suggested that distribution was most strongly defined by water depth, with all sightings made inside the 90 m isobath. Boat surveys were carried out at Banks Peninsula (2002 to 2006) to continue the long-term photo-ID project. Using the 22 year dataset, alongshore home-range of the 20 most frequently sighted dolphins was estimated by univariate kernel methods. Mean alongshore range was 49.69 km (SE = 5.29), 60% larger than the previous estimate. Fifteen percent of these individuals had ranges extending beyond the northern boundary of the BPMMS. An acoustic data logger, the T-POD, was trialled for passive acoustic monitoring of Hector�s dolphins. Simultaneous T-POD/theodolite surveys revealed that T-PODs reliably detected dolphins within 200m. No detections were made beyond 500m. To monitor inshore habitat use, T-PODs were deployed in three locations at Banks Peninsula (n = 431 days). A GLM analysis of Detection Positive Minutes (DPM) per day indicated that season had the largest effect on detection rate, with over twice as many DPMs per day in summer (x̄ = 99.8) as winter (x̄ = 47.6). The new findings on Hector�s dolphin distribution and ranging can be used to improve the design of the BPMMS. It is recommended that the offshore boundary of the BPMMS is extended to 20 n.mi. (37 km), the northern boundary is moved 12 km north and recreational gillnetting is prohibited year round. In areas where distribution of Hector�s dolphin has not been studied, the offshore boundary of MPAs should enclose the 100 m isobath.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Simon Fraser University, 2001. / Includes bibliographical references.

As sites of global environmental degradation continue to emerge and pose significant threats to life on the planet, the world's natural resource managers persist in attempts to mitigate and reverse this degradation. While approaches to conservation have evolved over the years to include locals in the policy-making process, the experiences of those policies by locals - once in place - are often overlooked. This dissertation examines the socioeconomic and political changes associated with conservation projects from the perspectives and experiences of the people most affected by these projects. Through 128 individual interviews, 25 focus group discussions, and participant observation, I compare two approaches to Irrawaddy dolphin conservation: one in Myanmar that focuses on preservation of livelihoods and the other in Cambodia that focuses on economic development. I endeavor to bring local experiences and perceptions of these projects to the forefront to examine their impacts on livelihoods and to help identify potential gaps in policy intentions and effects. I also draw on political ecology theory to assess and critique the relationship of capitalism to international conservation. After explaining the unique issues and barriers associated with this project, I lay out the direct socioeconomic and ecological effects of each conservation project by comparing participant experiences and perceptions of the projects with those of conservation officials. I then compare conservation projects to examine the indirect effects of each approach. I trace the pathway of the capitalist conception of nature as commodities upward from 'developed' countries to its global institutionalization through the process of eco-governmentality and then downward to 'developing' countries through the delivery system of NGO governmentality. I explain how Myanmar blocked this delivery system while Cambodia embraced it and attribute the apparent shift from a 'communal ideology' to a 'consumerist ideology' in Cambodia, and lack of such a shift in Myanmar, to these opposing tactics. I then focus on the capitalist approach to conservation in Cambodia and show how this approach has led to the subsequent exacerbation of environmental and social problems it intended to fix. Lastly, I offer specific recommendations for each project, as well for international conservation in general, based on findings.

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2016-06-13T13:13:46Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Dissertação_Biblioteca.pdf: 1902006 bytes, checksum: 7d4961b62f35904b170bb537e0fae2a7 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-13T13:13:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Dissertação_Biblioteca.pdf: 1902006 bytes, checksum: 7d4961b62f35904b170bb537e0fae2a7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-07-28 / CNPq / O impacto de embarcações sobre o comportamento de golfinhos tem sido particularmente importante em regiões de elevado potencial turístico-econômico, sobretudo em função da rápida expansão dessa indústria e da ausência ou ineficiência de rigorosa fiscalização ambiental. Esse estudo examinou o cumprimento da legislação ambiental vigente na Baía dos Golfinhos, Nordeste do Brasil. A partir das observações das embarcações e cetáceos registramos as seguintes informações: (i) tempo de permanência das embarcações na Baía, (ii) número das embarcações simultaneamente presentes na Baía, (iii) distância de uma ou mais embarcações para os golfinhos e (iv) número de eventos de perseguição aos golfinhos pelas embarcações. Os levantamentos foram conduzidos ao longo de 21 dias, totalizando 168 h de observação efetiva. Durante este período foram identificadas 14 embarcações adaptadas à prática de atividades turísticas, entre catamarãs, escunas e lanchas. Foram registradas infrações à legislação quanto ao tempo máximo de permanência no interior da baía, distância para os cetáceos e ocorrência de perseguição aos animais. A existência de atividades turísticas fora dos padrões recomendados indica a necessidade de ações urgentes para assegurar a proteção dos golfinhos na região. Em primeira linha, deveria haver uma fiscalização efetiva por parte das agências governamentais. Nossos achados são similares aos de outros estudos prévios e independentes realizados na Austrália e Nova Zelândia. Isso demonstra que sem uma efetiva aplicação da lei, meras regulamentações têm pouca chance de proteger os golfinhos e melhorar seu bem-estar diante de atividades náuticas de ecoturismo. Por outro lado, dois fatores exigem a atenção dos gestores ambientais: (i) a complexidade inerente às normas atuais, o que pode gerar uma deficiência na fiscalização, mesmo que existente, e (ii) a baixa rigidez dessas normas, quando se leva em consideração dados de pesquisas recentes. Portanto, faz-se necessário urgente adequação das leis, de modo que elas se tornem efetivas do ponto de vista ambiental e de fácil fiscalização. Tais passos resultariam em medidas mais efetivas para se reduzir as perturbações das embarcações na Baía dos Golfinhos. Todavia, a forma mais eficiente para se reduzir os problemas causados pelas embarcações a motor parece ser a criação de santuários costeiros para os golfinhos, onde tais embarcações não teriam permissão para entrada. / The impact of motorboats on the behavior of dolphins has been particularly important in regions with high tourism and economic potential, especially in light of the rapid expansion of this industry and the absence or inefficiency of strict environmental enforcement. This study examined the impact of tourist motorboats on the estuarine dolphin and enforcement of environmental regulations in Baía dos Golfinhos, Northeast Brazil. From the observations of vessels and cetaceans, we recorded the following information: (i) time of entry and exit of each vessel during the day, (ii) number of vessels simultaneously present in the Bay, (iii) distance of one or more vessels for dolphins and (iv) number of events of persecution to dolphins by boat. Surveys were conducted over 21 days, totaling 168 hours of effective observation. During this period, we identified 14 vessels adapted to the practice of touristic activities, including catamarans, schooners and barges. The existence of tourist activities outside the recommended standards indicates the need for urgent action to ensure the protection of dolphins in the region. Importantly, there should be an effective monitoring by the government agencies. Our findings are similar to two other previous and independent studies in Australia and New Zealand. It seems that without effective law enforcement, mere regulations have little chance to protect the dolphins and to improve their welfare from nautical ecotourism activities. Moreover, two factors require attention from environmental managers: (i) the inherent complexity of current regulations, which can weakens their enforcement, and (ii) the softness of such rules, when one takes into account recent research findings. Thus, the modernization of laws is required so that they become scientifically adequate and easier to enforce. These steps would help reducing the disturbance caused by the motorboats in Baía dos Golfinhos. However, the most efficient way to reduce the problems caused by motorboats seems to be the creation of a number of coastal sanctuaries where motorboats are not permitted.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2016-09-13T12:16:08Z No. of bitstreams: 1 danielaferrodegodoy.pdf: 2592911 bytes, checksum: 6114e08864f1042a3c5fe154817038fe (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Diamantino Mayra (mayra.diamantino@ufjf.edu.br) on 2016-09-13T12:46:55Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 danielaferrodegodoy.pdf: 2592911 bytes, checksum: 6114e08864f1042a3c5fe154817038fe (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-13T12:46:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 danielaferrodegodoy.pdf: 2592911 bytes, checksum: 6114e08864f1042a3c5fe154817038fe (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-05-27 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Em muitos estudos sobre o uso de hábitat conclui-se que as características ambientais influenciam efetivamente na distribuição e abundância de recursos alimentares, que determinam, por sua vez, toda a distribuição da espécie numa determinada área. As áreas que os animais passam a maior parte do tempo são denominadas de habitatschave. A utilização do habitat realizada pelo boto-cinza na região do Complexo Estuarino Lagunar de Cananéia foi estudada durante o período de agosto de 2009 a junho de 2010. As amostragens foram realizadas mensalmente em três setores, através de transecções lineares paralelas. Em duas das quatro saídas mensais foram registrados a localização geográfica dos agrupamentos avistados, sua composição e tamanho. Além disso, no inicio, meio e fim de cada transecção foram coletados os seguintes descritores ambientais: profundidade, temperatura da água, transparência da água e salinidade. Nas outras duas saídas mensais as transecções foram percorridas a fim de registrar as atividades comportamentais – alimentação ou deslocando - dos agrupamentos encontrados. Foram avistados 330 agrupamentos, com 1028 botos-cinza no total. O setor de maior ocorrência foi a Baía de Trapandé, próxima à ligação com o oceano adjacente, local este em que a alimentação foi a atividade comportamental mais observada e a freqüência de indivíduos nas estações do ano foi constante, diferentemente dos demais. Na área como um todo, o tamanho de agrupamento variou de um a 14 botos, mas os registros mais freqüentes foram de dois e três indivíduos. Os infantes foram registrados em todas as saídas de campo, sobretudo na estação chuvosa (novembro a abril). Houve uma maior freqüência de botos-cinza no período da manhã (8:00h a 12:30h) do que no período da tarde (12:31h a 18:00h), como também em marés de sizígia de enchente, se comparado as outras marés. Os botos ocorreram em todas as classes de valores dos descritores ambientais analisados. As maiores ocorrências foram registradas em águas mais turvas; profundidades entre cinco e quinze metros; salinidade acima de 20 ppm; e temperaturas acima de 20ºC. Pelo exposto, fica claro que os botos-cinza apresentaram uma distribuição heterogênea dentro do estuário estudado e as áreas de maior concentração merecem maior atenção na elaboração de estratégias de conservação. / In several studies regarding habitat use it was concluded that environmental characteristics effectively influence distribution and abundance of food resources, which determine species entire distribution in a given area. The areas that animals spend most of their time are called key habitats. The estuarine dolphin habitat use in the Estuarine Complex of Cananéia – Iguape- Paranagua region was studied from August 2009 to June 2010. Samples were monthly collected in three sectors, using parallel linear transects. In two out of four field trip were registered geographical location, composition and size of spotted groups. In the beginning, middle and end of each transection the following environmental descriptors were collected: water depth, temperature, transparency and salinity. In the other two field trips the transections were traversed to record behavioral activities - feeding or moving - of fouded groups. In total, 330 groups with 1028 individuals were spotted. The sector with major occurrence of groups was the Trapandé Bay, close to the conection with adjacent ocean. In this place, feeding was the most observed behavior, and the frequency of individuals was constant in every season, differently of the other sectors. Group size varied from 1 to 14 individual, but most frequent records had two or three individuals per group. Infants were recorded in all field trips, especially in the rainy season. There was a higher frequency of estuarine dolphins in mornings than afternoons, as also higher frequency in spring tides flood when compared to other tides. The estuarine dolphin occurred in every values classes of environmental descriptors analyzed. The highest occurrences were recorded in turbid waters; depths between 5 and 15 m, salinity above 20 ppm and temperatures above 20ºC. For these reasons, it is clear that the estuarine dolphin showed a heterogeneous distribution in the studied estuary and the areas of greatest concentration deserve more attention in developing conservation strategies.

Coastal dolphins on the South African east coast are threatened by degradation and loss of habitat as a result of increasing coastal development, industrial effluent and agricultural runoff. In addition, dolphins off the coast of KwaZulu-Natal have, for more than four decades, been heavily exploited through unchecked incidental capture in shark nets set at 45 beaches. In light of the high rate of mortality and apparent depletion of both species, the persistence of bottlenose (Tursiops truncatus) and humpback (Sousa chinensis) dolphins in that region has been questioned. Genetic variation in south east African dolphin populations was determined as a means of assessing the fitness of the populations and their resilience to demographic disturbances. Furthermore, in order to determine the effects of continued mortality on the KwaZulu-Natal subpopulations, it was necessary to determine whether they are open or closed to immigration from the adjacent East Cape region, which represents a relatively unstressed region, characterised by a lack of shark nets and less intensive coastal activities. Genetic variation and differentiation in the maternal genome was assessed by determining the sequence of the first 400 bases of the mtDNA control region in bottlenose and humpback dolphins from KwaZulu-Natal and the East Cape. Nuclear variation and differentiation was estimated at six microsatellite loci and compared with earlier estimates determined from allozyme electrophoresis. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) was assessed as a means of identifying population subdivisions and diagnostic population markers. Both bottlenose and humpback dolphins on the South African east coast are characterised by low nuclear and organellar genetic variation, consistent with a possible genetic bottleneck, the inferred date of which coincides with the onset of the last glacial period. Genetic variation in South African bottlenose dolphins was lower than that reported elsewhere for the species, while an intraspecific comparison supported lower genetic variation in South African humpback dolphins than in humpback dolphins sampled off Hong Kong. An analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), performed on mtDNA haplotype frequency data indicated, for both species, significant genetic subdivision, concordant with geographic location. The data suggested female bottlenose dolphins demonstrate regional philopatry, displaying limited movement between KwaZulu-Natal and the East Cape. Female humpback dolphins tend towards strict local philopatry, with significant maternal differentiation evident both within and between regional subdivisions. Differentiation in microsatellite allele frequencies was also demonstrated between KwaZulu-Natal and the East Cape for both species, suggesting that the movement of male bottlenose and humpback dolphins may also be restricted. Nonetheless, considerably higher nuclear gene flow estimates suggested that males of both species represent the principal vectors of gene dispersal. The implications of historically low genetic variability and population subdivision in South African dolphins are important in view of the current rate of mortality in KwaZulu-Natal. The persistence of coastal dolphin populations relies on their ability to recover following a bottleneck event. Continued removal of demographically important age-sex classes such as occurs in shark nets, may not only further reduce the genetic variation, but would ultimately deplete dolphin populations in KwaZulu-Natal beyond a sustainable number, resulting in eventual local extinction. The differentiation of the two regions implies that, in the event of local extinction occurring, dolphins, particularly females, from adjacent regions will not readily re-colonise the area. This would result in fragmentation of the south east African populations and ensure reproductive isolation from neighbouring populations on the east African coast.

Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) are large-bodied predators that are locally abundant in the coastal Everglades. Because of their potential to exert strong top-down effects on their communities, it is important to understand how spatiotemporal variation in biotic and abiotic factors affects the abundance and behavior of dolphins. This study combined two years of transect surveys with photographic identification methods to assess spatiotemporal variation in the abundance and group sizes of bottlenose dolphins across four large regions of the coastal Everglades including the Shark and Harney Rivers, Whitewater Bay, and coastal oceans of the Gulf of Mexico and Florida Bay. Dolphin abundance was similar across wet and dry seasons, except in river habitats where abundances were higher during the dry season. Group sizes were largest in Florida Bay and open water. Dolphins may be relatively resilient to abiotic changes in the coastal Everglades, with the possible exception of river habitats.

Heaviside's dolphin (Cephalorhynchus heavisidii) is a poorly studied coastal delphinid with a limited inshore distribution off the west coast of southern Africa where it is sympatric with the similar sized dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus). It is exposed to an unknown level of bycatch particularly in near-shore set-net fisheries and is also potentially impacted by the growing boat-based whale watching industry in South Africa. In this thesis I describe the results of a study investigating the distribution, movements, behaviour and abundance of Heaviside's dolphins in the near-shore environment of the Western Cape of South Africa as a precursor to assessing its potential vulnerability to anthropogenic threats. Data were gathered using three different approaches in the field; diurnal shore based observations, boat based photo-ID surveys along ~390 km of coastline and satellite telemetry. Data were collected for dusky dolphins where feasible. Heaviside’s dolphins exhibited a strong pattern of resting inshore during daytime and foraging offshore at night that was presumed to be related to the movement of juvenile hake (Merluccius capensis) closer to the surface at night. In addition, despite near-shore observations failing to indicate feeding, dolphins were consistently found to be more abundant along regions of the coast which over the long term had higher levels of small hake available offshore. In contrast the near-shore distribution of dusky dolphins varied considerably between years possibly due to the very near-shore environment being at the edge of their habitat. A tendency for dusky dolphins to move offshore during upwelling conditions was observed from shore in St Helena Bay, the site of a strong predictable upwelling cell. However this was the only location in which very large groups of animals (50-500) were seen during coastal boat surveys suggesting this pattern may have been area specific and feeding strategies may vary throughout their range. Sympatric appears to be mediated by differences in overall range and prey type and size differentiation. Heaviside’s dolphins were found to have small home ranges and show a high degree of site fidelity over several years, at least during summer months. Dolphins fitted with satellitelinked transmitters used only limited home ranges (~876 to 1990 km2) which scaled positively with body size within the ~50 day tracking period, while photographically identified animals did not disperse significantly further than this over 3 years. The maximum coastwise displacement observed for an individual (88.4 km after 1 year) was considerably less than the 390 km length of the overall study area, and equivalent to the maximum coastwise movement seen during satellite-tagging (83.1 km). This suggests that measured home ranges may be stable over several years, although the number of resighted individuals (n = 76) was small and (as data collection was restricted to summer months) seasonal differences in movements or migrations cannot be ruled out. Associations among photographically identified animals did not differ from a random mixing of individuals, suggesting that this species has a fission-fusion type social structure at least over the short term. The abundance of Heaviside's dolphins was calculated from photo-ID mark-recapture data at three spatial scales using Chapman’s modified Petersen estimators. The proportion ofdistinctively marked individuals in this species is low (14 - 17%) reducing sample sizes and introducing a large extrapolation factor, both of which contribute to an increase in the variance of any resultant population estimate. Using resightings after one year, the total number of animals over the whole 390km study area was calculated to be 6345 (CV = 0.26, CI = 3573 – 11 267) while using same-season re-sightings the total number of animals using a 20km long section of coastline in the centre of the study area was calculated as 527 (CV = 0.35, CI = 272 – 1020). These estimates may be significantly biased downwards by the effects of heterogeneity in the capture probability of individuals which it was not possible to account for analytically due to small sample sizes. Sympatry of Heaviside's and dusky dolphins appears to be mediated by differences in the overall range and in the type and size of prey consumed. From a conservation point of view, our findings for Heaviside's dolphins are encouraging in that they indicate a relatively large population size, although their strong site fidelity does make them more vulnerable to localised impacts than a more widely ranging species like dusky dolphins and this needs to be considered during management of the population. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

Heaviside‟s dolphins, Cephalorhynchus heavisidii, are among the least known cetaceans. They are endemic to the coastal waters along the west coast of southern Africa. The occurrence, behaviour and group dynamics were investigated for these dolphins in Table Bay, South Africa during the summer of 2008 and 2009. Markrecapture photographic identification techniques, modelling techniques and Geographical Information System (GIS) were used to analyse the data. The dolphins were observed primarily in a well-defined 7 km2 area on the south side of Table Bay along a 3 km east-west stretch of coast known as Granger Bay, and within 2 km from shore. They used this area heterogeneously; for the array of behaviours observed, all core areas (50 % kernels) were located in Granger Bay with very little overlap of areas used for milling, socialising, resting and travelling. Milling and socialising were exhibited more often than travelling and resting. Foraging was never observed in areas close to shore, which supports earlier studies suggesting that these dolphins forage primarily offshore. Of the 95 identified individuals, 24.2 % of the individuals were seen only once and 73.7 % of the individuals were sighted less than five times while two individuals were seen 11 times. Groups varied in size from one to 26 animals with a median of five animals. Many of the potential dyads were never seen and those observed had generally weak measure of association. The group structure appears highly dynamic, with great lability in group sizes and membership, suggesting a fluid social system with mostly weak inter-individual bonds. Individuals in Table Bay display low site fidelity, at least in the short-term. The observed pattern of area use and behavioural preferences indicate that coastal management strategies should consider the ecological and behavioural needs of Heaviside's dolphins to appropriately safeguard this species as a valuable component of South African natural treasures and legally protected taxa. Further continuing research is needed to build on this initial study to better understand the processes that shape the population structure and group dynamics of Heaviside's dolphins, and to provide further detail on habitat preferences and areas used, both in Table Bay and environs. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Zoology and Entomology / Unrestricted