Although drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) exist and have an effect on health, crime, economies, and politics, little research has explored these entities as political organizations. Legal interest groups and movements have been found to influence domestic and international politics because they operate within legal parameters. Illicit groups, such as DTOs, have rarely been accounted for—especially in the literature on interest groups—though they play a measurable role in affecting domestic and international politics in similar ways. Using an interest group model, this dissertation analyzed DTOs as illicit interest groups (IIGs) to explain their political influence. The analysis included a study of group formation, development, and demise that examined IIG motivation, organization, and policy impact. The data for the study drew from primary and secondary sources, which include interviews with former DTO members and government officials, government documents, journalistic accounts, memoirs, and academic research. To illustrate the interest group model, the study examined Medellin-based DTO leaders, popularly known as the “Medellin Cartel.” In particular, the study focused on the external factors that gave rise to DTOs in Colombia and how Medellin DTOs reacted to the implementation of counternarcotics efforts. The discussion was framed by the implementation of the 1979 Extradition Treaty negotiated between Colombia and the United States. The treaty was significant because as drug trafficking became the principal bilateral issue in the 1980s; extradition became a major method of combating the illicit drug business. The study’s findings suggested that Medellin DTO leaders had a one-issue agenda and used a variety of political strategies to influence public opinion and all three branches of government—the judicial, the legislative, and the executive—in an effort to invalidate the 1979 Extradition Treaty. The changes in the life cycle of the 1979 Extradition Treaty correlated with changes in the political power of Medellin-based DTOs vis-à-vis the Colombian government, and international forces such as the U.S. government’s push for tougher counternarcotics efforts.

A presente dissertação de mestrado verificou empiricamente a influência do tráfico de entorpecentes nos delitos de homicídio e roubo em 32 metrópoles da América Latina, por meio da análise dos delitos reportados por jornais diários dessas cidades nos anos de 2006 e 2011. O objetivo deste estudo foi mensurar o impacto em nível continental do comércio ilegal de drogas na prevalência de outros delitos, levando em consideração outras variáveis contextuais. A partir do entendimento de que a criminalidade urbana possui forte componente endógeno de organização, a hipótese central foi a de que o narcotráfico foi o principal impulsionador do surto de violência vivenciado nesta região do planeta. Para medir o peso desta atividade ilegal sobre outros crimes, empregou-se a metodologia quantitativa. Por meio de análises estatísticas multivariadas, as taxas de homicídio e roubo foram analisadas levando-se em consideração variáveis endógenas, como o tráfico, e variáveis de controle, de caráter exógeno à criminalidade. Os achados sociológicos demonstraram uma influência expressiva do narcotráfico na dinâmica dos dois crimes. No caso dos roubos, a relação detectada entre as taxas (criadas a partir dos delitos reportados) foi positiva e forte nos dois períodos pesquisados. Os homicídios, todavia, foram influenciados pelo comércio ilegal de drogas apenas no primeiro recorte temporal. No segundo momento pesquisado, são os roubos, influenciados pelo tráfico, que passam a impactar na prevalência de assassinatos em nível continental. / This dissertation presents an empirical verification of the influence of narcotics trafficking in the crimes of murder and robbery in 32 cities in Latin America, through the analysis of crimes reported by newspapers of those cities in the years 2006 and 2011. The aim of this study was to measure the impact at a continental level of illegal drug trade in prevalence to other crimes, taking also into account contextual variables. From the understanding that urban crime has a strong endogenous organizational component, the central hypothesis was that drug trafficking was the main factor of the outbreak of violence experienced in this region of the planet. To measure the weight of this illegal activity on other crimes, we used a quantitative methodology. Through multivariated statistical analysis, the rates of the three offenses were tested with control variables exogenous in relation to the crimes. The sociological findings are that there is a significant influence of the drug trade in the dynamics of the two crimes. In the case of robberies, the relation between crime rates was positive and strong in both periods studied. Homicides, however, were influenced by the drug trafficking only in the first period of time researched. In the second period researched, the rate of robberies (influenced by drug dealing) was the variable that impacted most in the prevalence of murders at a continental level.

This project analyzes three examples of testimonial literature written by favela residents in Brazil to demonstrate the extent to which these accounts contest or confirm the popular news media's violent representation of favelas and their inhabitants. The literary works Quatrocentos contra um: Uma história do Comando Vermelho (1991) by William da Silva Lima and Capão pecado (2000) by Ferréz and the documentary Notícias de uma guerra particular (1999) present an insider's perspective of the violence that takes place in the favela and thus can reveal the factors that contribute to it. Through these explanations, readers and viewers become aware of the generally unheard side of the story of the repressed and ignored poor class. Lima's voice in Quatrocentos contra um serves to explain the way that crime was organized as a means of survival to combat the repression and abuse of the government, and in Capão pecado Ferréz demonstrates the difficulty that favela residents who are not involved in drug trafficking have in avoiding the violence that surrounds them because they do not have equal opportunity for education and employment. He suggests a non-violent rebellion through artistic means to build a positive image of favela inhabitants, both inside and outside of the poor community. The documentary Notícias de uma guerra particular directed by João Moreira Salles and Kátia Lund presents information that places much of the blame for violence on the lack of social structure that would integrate the poor, and more importantly allows for honest, hardworking favela residents to share their experience of trying to make a living and avoid illegal activity while suffering from the stereotype that all who live in poor communities are involved in violent activity. Together these works constitute an attempt for the violence of the favelas to be explained through the voice of favela residents themselves.

The Yugoslav wars of the 1990s - namely Croatia/ Bosnia (1991-1995) and Kosovo (1998-1999) - were the focus of unprecedented, and uninformed, international attention. This attention accepted at face value an ethnic rationale for the conflict that was often peddled by the combatants themselves; such rationales served to mask the economic and political aspirations of engaged state- and non-state actors. The wars allowed organised crime to take root and proliferate exponentially across geographical, political, and economic spheres. It became a tool of states, militaries and militias; states co-opted criminals, and vice-versa. The Serbian state became a criminal entity (as did, to a lesser extent, surrounding states) in partial control of a thoroughly criminalised regional combat economy, often in collusion with supposed ethnic `enemies.¿ Reconstruction, development, and governance interventions conducted by international actors in the successor states of the former Yugoslavia remain stifled by an absence of understanding of both the systematic infrastructural presence of organised crime, and a lack of acknowledgement of the economic rationales underlying the wars themselves.

Criminality related to organized crime and criminal networks, with gun violence, bombings, drug trafficking and money laundering, is a growing problem in Sweden. Many of these crimes are made possible through the network's links to legitimate businesses and the use of enablers - a field of research which has been historically underwhelming - but that is now starting to spark the interest of researchers and politicians alike. This thesis explores the phenomenon of these enablers in organized crime and criminal networks. The data consisted of a large sample of Swedish court documents that contain the verdicts derived from the encrypted chat services Anom, Encrochat and SkyECC. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the connections between individuals involved in organized crime and legitimate businesses. The results showed that 42 percent of the analysed cases contained enablers. A majority of the crimes that involved one or more enablers also involved narcotics, and that the legitimate businesses linked to the enablers were companies operating in professions such as the transportation sector, auto shops, exchange offices, law enforcement, storage or moving. Professional drivers were the most frequently prosecuted persons in the convictions, followed by business owners. Common themes for how the enablers presented in the material were related to the drug trafficking process and storing process. The results tell us that the use of enablers seem to be a relatively common aspect of organized crime operations and that it is, as previous research suggests, likely a problem that will only grow.

L’objectif de cette thèse est de comprendre de quelle manière le juge décide de la culpabilité de l’accusé, notamment dans les affaires de vol et de trafic de stupéfiants. En s’appuyant sur le programme ethnométhodologique et sur une enquête ethnographique, la recherche se penche sur l’ensemble de pratiques et raisonnements présents dans l’activité décisionnelle des juges, afin de rendre visibles les savoirs d’action mobilisés pour décider de la culpabilité. La thèse montre que la prise de décision est fortement marquée par la présomption de culpabilité qui découle d’un processus de catégorisation des justiciables en tant que « voleurs » et « trafiquants ». Ces catégories typiques sont associées à l’image de l’ennemi, c’est-à-dire, l’individu insoumis et incapable d’un modus vivendi commun (Jakobs, 2009). Prenant appui sur les analyses empiriques réalisées, l’étude fait une analogie entre la figure de l’ennemi et le concept d’homo sacer (Agamben, 1997; 2002) en proposant finalement que le verdict de culpabilité se construit à l’intérieur d’un « camp » - c’est-à-dire, un lieu de suspension de l’ordre juridique (Agamben, 1997) – qui se structure, paradoxalement, au sein même de la justice pénale. Mots-clés: sentencing ; vol ; trafic de stupéfiants ; verdict de culpabilité ; Brésil / This ethnographic study of the judicial practices in Brazil investigates how criminal judges decide the guilt of the accused. The research shows that this decision is strongly influenced by the presumption of guilt arising from a process of categorization of individuals as "thieves" and "drug traffickers". These categories are associated with the typical image of the enemy, that is to say, the individual unruly and incapable of common modus vivendi (Jakobs, 2009). Building on empirical data, the study makes an analogy between the enemy and the concept of homo sacer (Agamben, 1997, 2002), suggesting that the verdict of guilt builts inside a "camp", i.e, a place of suspension of the juridical order (Agamben, 1997).

La thèse vise à analyser la structure des échanges transnationaux de cocaïne, d’héroïne et de marijuana. Partant de la perspective des systèmes-mondes, l’hypothèse que le trafic de drogues forme un système inverse au commerce légal est développée. Les outils de l’analyse de réseaux sont appliqués aux échanges de drogues entre pays. La thèse s’appuie sur deux sources de données complémentaires. La première est une banque d’informations uniques compilées par l’United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) sur les saisies d’importance effectuées dans le monde entre 1998 et 2007 (n = 47629). Ces données sont complétées par les informations contenues dans une dizaine de rapports publiés par des organismes internationaux de surveillance du trafic de drogues. Les réseaux d’échanges dirigés construits à partir de ces données permettent d’examiner l’étendue du trafic entre la plupart des pays du monde et de qualifier leur implication individuelle. Les chapitres 3 et 4 portent sur la structure du trafic elle-même. Dans un premier temps, les différents rôles joués par les pays et les caractéristiques des trois marchés de drogues sont comparés. Les quantités en circulation et les taux d’interception sont estimés pour les 16 régions géographiques définies par l’UNODC. Dans un deuxième temps, leurs caractéristiques structurelles sont comparées à celles des marchés légaux. Il en ressort que les marchés de drogues sont beaucoup moins denses et que les pays périphériques y jouent un rôle plus prononcé. L’inégalité des échanges caractérise les deux économies, mais leurs structures sont inversées. Le chapitre 5 propose une analyse de la principale source de risque pour les trafiquants, les saisies de drogues. Les données compilées permettent de démontrer que les saisies policières de drogues agrégées au niveau des pays sont principalement indicatrices du volume de trafic. L’éventuel biais lié aux pressions policières est négligeable pour les quantités saisies, mais plus prononcé pour le nombre de saisies. Les organismes de contrôle seraient donc plus à même de moduler leurs activités que les retombées éventuelles. Les résultats suggèrent aussi que les trafiquants adoptent des stratégies diverses pour limiter les pertes liées aux saisies. Le chapitre 6 s’attarde à l’impact de la structure sur le prix et la valeur des drogues. Le prix de gros varie considérablement d’un pays à l’autre et d’une drogue à l’autre. Ces variations s’expliquent par les contraintes auxquelles font face les trafiquants dans le cadre de leurs activités. D’une part, la valeur des drogues augmente plus rapidement lorsqu’elles sont destinées à des pays où les risques et les coûts d’importation sont élevés. D’autre part, la majoration des prix est plus prononcée lorsque les échanges sont dirigés vers des pays du cœur de l’économie légale. De nouveau, les rôles sont inversés : les pays généralement avantagés dépendent des plus désavantagés, et les pays pauvres en profitent pour exploiter les riches. / This dissertation proposes an analysis of the structure of transnational drug trafficking. Based on the world-system perspective, it is hypothesized that cocaine, heroin and marijuana form separate markets that are opposite to other legal trades in many ways. The analysis relies on two data sources. The first is a unique compilation of seizures gathered together by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). The seizures were made between 1998 and 2007 (n = 47629). It is completed by intelligence published by various agencies across the world. The dataset allows the construction of directed networks of drug trade between most countries of the world. Chapters 3 and 4 analyze the structure of the trade itself. Firstly, the roles played by the countries in each market are described and compared. The flow of drugs and interception rates are estimated for each 16 geographic areas defined by the UNODC. Secondly, several structural characteristics of the drug markets are compared to other legal trade, namely coffee and chocolate. It is shown that drug trade networks are less dense and that peripheral countries play more important roles. While inequality is characteristic of both legal and illegal economies, their structure is reversed. In chapter 5, it is demonstrated that seizure data are mostly indicative of drug trafficking within a country. The expected law enforcement bias is negligible for quantities seized but more apparent when we look at the number of seizures. Thus, law enforcement agencies are better at planning operations against drug trafficking than at predicting their outcomes. The results presented in chapter 5 also suggest that traffickers use counter-strategies to reduce losses caused by drug seizures. The price and value of drugs show significant variations among countries. Those variations are usually explained by varying costs and pressures suffered by traffickers. Chapter 6 seeks to measure the impact of structural features on wholesale price and value. The value of drugs increases more sharply when the drugs are bound to countries where the risks of seizures are higher. Furthermore, price mark-ups are higher when the trade is directed to core countries. Again, the situation is reversed: richer countries that generally control all economic activities rely on peripheral countries to be supplied in drugs.

L’objectif de cette thèse est de comprendre de quelle manière le juge décide de la culpabilité de l’accusé, notamment dans les affaires de vol et de trafic de stupéfiants. En s’appuyant sur le programme ethnométhodologique et sur une enquête ethnographique, la recherche se penche sur l’ensemble de pratiques et raisonnements présents dans l’activité décisionnelle des juges, afin de rendre visibles les savoirs d’action mobilisés pour décider de la culpabilité. La thèse montre que la prise de décision est fortement marquée par la présomption de culpabilité qui découle d’un processus de catégorisation des justiciables en tant que « voleurs » et « trafiquants ». Ces catégories typiques sont associées à l’image de l’ennemi, c’est-à-dire, l’individu insoumis et incapable d’un modus vivendi commun (Jakobs, 2009). Prenant appui sur les analyses empiriques réalisées, l’étude fait une analogie entre la figure de l’ennemi et le concept d’homo sacer (Agamben, 1997; 2002) en proposant finalement que le verdict de culpabilité se construit à l’intérieur d’un « camp » - c’est-à-dire, un lieu de suspension de l’ordre juridique (Agamben, 1997) – qui se structure, paradoxalement, au sein même de la justice pénale. Mots-clés: sentencing ; vol ; trafic de stupéfiants ; verdict de culpabilité ; Brésil / This ethnographic study of the judicial practices in Brazil investigates how criminal judges decide the guilt of the accused. The research shows that this decision is strongly influenced by the presumption of guilt arising from a process of categorization of individuals as "thieves" and "drug traffickers". These categories are associated with the typical image of the enemy, that is to say, the individual unruly and incapable of common modus vivendi (Jakobs, 2009). Building on empirical data, the study makes an analogy between the enemy and the concept of homo sacer (Agamben, 1997, 2002), suggesting that the verdict of guilt builts inside a "camp", i.e, a place of suspension of the juridical order (Agamben, 1997).

In addition to coverage in the national and international media of the ongoing violence in Mexico related to the drug trade, there has been growing interest in fictional representations of the Mexican drug trade, its origins and social context. There is now a considerable body of written narratives that have been christened narconovelas. A small number of academic works has charted the emergence of the narconovela and sought to examine how drug traffickers have been represented and evaluated in fiction. However, very little attention has been paid to the aesthetic qualities of ‘narco-literature’. This study examines four of the most highly-regarded works in detail: Balas de plata (2008), by Élmer Mendoza; Los minutos negros (2006), by Martín Solares; Contrabando (2008), by Víctor Hugo Rascón Banda; and Trabajos del reino (2004), by Yuri Herrera. So embedded is the phenomenon of drug trafficking in northern Mexican culture, so suffused with cliché is its representation in other media, that to write about the topic with originality and ethical nuance is difficult. This thesis accounts for the distinct choices made by the four authors in question to address this difficulty of representation in the structure, style and tone of their novels. The self-awareness exhibited by these works of fiction regarding the challenges of representing their subject matter render them the most sophisticated examples yet created of the so-called narconovela.

This dissertation aims to provide a strategic qualitative economic analysis of the illicit drug trafficking industry as it evolved in its modern form across the Americas in the latter part of the 20th century, with principal focus on Colombia and Mexico, and to assess its impact on the security environment in the Americas with the ultimate ambition to provide tangible recommendations for complex disruptive countermeasures. The key premise upon which all the conclusions are later formulated is that trafficking in illicit substances is primarily an entrepreneurial activity aimed to generate profit and economic approach to the issue therefore yields the most promising prospects for tangible results. Narcoterrorism in its own merit, and drug-related violence in general, is contemplated, analyzed and explained as one of the key tactics inherent to the trafficking business model. Finally, a critical assessment of existing counter-narcotics strategies is performed in order to outline deficiencies of these policies with the aim to provide alternative and more effective countermeasures against illicit trafficking.