O presente trabalho destina-se à discussão sobre o cálculo de vida útil de rolamentos. Mostrando o avanço do processo de cálculo ao longo das décadas até o mais alto grau de desenvolvimento atual. A preocupação do texto é demonstrar de forma simples e objetiva as divergências que existem entre a formulação teórica e a real vida dos rolamentos, no que tange a fadiga de contato. Neste contexto foram realizados testes, em máquina especialmente destinada ao ensaio da fadiga de rolamentos. Variando-se para as duas séries de ensaios, apenas, a temperatura (aproximadamente 85°C e 110°C). Os resultados obtidos indicam que a vida real dos rolamentos apresenta grande divergência se comparada com a vida útil calculada, principalmente, no regime com maior temperatura. Atribui-se a esta disparidade, a ausência de cálculos precisos quanto à correlação da vida útil com o fator l, que é uma forma de se calcular o espaçamento entre as superfícies de contato, e o não emprego do cálculo do fator de carga, na formulação da vida útil de rolamentos. / The present work has the purpose of discussing the life of rolling bearings, describing the evolution of bearing life calculation until its current state of the art. Our focus is to demonstrate, simply and objectively, the inconsistencies occurring between the actual life of rolling bearings and their theoretical fatigue life estimation. For such purpose, tests were developed in a special bearing test rig to assess bearing fatigue. Two test sets were carried out with temperature being the only variation (approximately 85°C and 110°C). Results obtained from these tests suggest that the real life of rolling bearings is indeed very different from calculated bearing life, especially under higher temperature. Such disparity can be attributed to the lack of a precise computation of the relationship between bearing real life and the l factor - which determines the thickness of lubricant separating raceways and balls - as well as to the failure to compute the load factor in bearing life estimation.

Additive manufacturing (AM) is currently on the verge of redefining the way we produce and manufacture things. AM encompasses many technologies and subsets, which are all joint by a common denominator; they build three dimensional (3D) objects by adding materials layer-upon-layer. This family of methods can do so, whether the material is plastic, concrete, metallic or living cells which can function as organs. AM manufacturing at the micro scale introduces new capabilities for the AM family that has been proven difficult to achieve with established AM methods at the macro scale. Electrohydrodynamic jet (E-jet or EHD jet) printing is a micro AM technique which has the ability to print at high resolution and speed by exploiting physical phenomena to generate droplets using the means of an electric field. However, when printing metallic materials, this method requires nanoparticles for deposition. To obtain a stable structure the material needs to be sintered, after which the deposited material is left with a porous structure. In contrary, electrochemical methods using the well-known deposition mechanism of electroplating, can deposit dense and pure structures with the downside of slow deposition. In this thesis, a new method is proposed to micro additive manufacturing by merging an already existing technology EHD with simple electrochemistry. By doing so, we demonstrate that it is possible to print metallic structures at the micro- and nanoscale with high speeds, without the need for presynthesized nanoparticles. To achieve this, a printing setup was designed and built. Using a sacrificial wire and the solvent acetonitrile, metallic building blocks such as lines, pillars and other geometric features could be printed in copper, silver, and gold with a minimum feature size of 200 nm. A voltage dependence was found for porosity, where the densest pillars were printed at 135-150 V and the most porous at 260 V. The maximum experimental deposition speed measured up to 4.1 µm · s−1 at 220 V. Faraday’s law of electrolysis could be used to predict the experimental deposition speed at a potential of 190 V with vexp = 1.8 µm · s−1 and vtheory = 0.8 µm · s−1. The microstructure of the pillars could be improved through lowering the applied voltage. In addition, given that Faraday’s law of electrolysis could predict experimental depositions speeds well, it gives further proof to reduction being the mechanism of deposition.

"Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) pumping relies on the interaction between electrical and flow fields in a dielectric fluid medium. Advantages such as simple and robust design as well as negligible vibration and noise during operation make EHD conduction pumping suitable for various applications. This work investigates meso-scale EHD conduction pumping used as an active flow distribution control mechanism for thermal management systems. Two different scenarios are considered for this purpose: alteration of uniform flow distribution and flow maldistribution correction. Its capability of actively controlling the flow distribution is examined in terms of the value of applied potential for initiation of flow divergence or flow equalization and the flow rate difference between each branch. Experimental results confirm that the reverse pumping direction configuration of EHD pumping is more effective than the same pumping direction configuration. A fundamental explanation of the heterocharge layer development is provided for the effect of flow direction on EHD conduction pumping performance. This study also involves a macro-scale EHD conduction pump used as an alternative mechanism of mixing liquid within a storage tank, for example under low-g condition. A numerical analysis of a simplified model of the experimental setup is provided to illustrate the liquid mixing and thermal homogenization process. The experimental and numerical study provide fundamental understanding of liquid mixing and thermal homogenization via EHD conduction pumping. Liquid-vapor phase change phenomena are used as effective mechanisms for heat transfer enhancement and have many applications such as HVAC&R systems. With this in mind, two detailed studies in pool boiling and in-tube flow condensation are carried out. Specifically, nucleate pool boiling on nano-textured surfaces, made of alumina ceramic substrate covered by electrospun nanofiber, is experimentally investigated. Also, the role of surface roughness and orientation in pool boiling is experimentally characterized. The in-tube convective condensation of pure water in mini-channels under sub-atmospheric pressure is also experimentally explored. This study provides valuable information for the design of condensers in a vapor compression cycle of HVAC&R systems using water as the refrigerant, this process has zero global warming potential. "

Dissertação apresentada para obtenção do grau de Doutor no ramo de Engenharia Mecânica, na Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, sob a orientação do Professor Doutor Jorge Seabra

Les paliers soumis à des charges dynamiques, comme par exemple les paliers de moteurs, ont une géométrie simple mais un fonctionnement assez complexe. La modélisation de tous les phénomènes physiques qui interviennent dans le fonctionnement d'un palier dynamique est très difficile à réaliser et nécessite parfois des temps de calcul prohibitifs. Le but de cette étude est d'aider les concepteurs des paliers en proposant des outils prédictifs rapides et performants. <br />Avec les lois de variation de la viscosité adaptées, les influences respectives des effets non-newtonien et piezo-visqueux sont étudiées dans le cas complexe des paliers de tête de bielle. Pour les cas étudiés l'effet piezo-visqueux s'avère être plus significatif sur le comportement du palier, que l'effet non-newtonien. Deux modèles thermiques sont développés : un premier modèle, qui donne une information 2D de la température dans le contact et un second, plus évolué, qui permet d'obtenir une information 3D de la température. L'efficacité des modèles est prouvée par le traitement d'un palier de tête de bielle. Une comparaison des résultats en utilisant un modèle EHD, deux modèles TEHD 3D avec et sans les effets non-newtoniens et un modèle TEHD dit "global" est présentée et analysée. <br />Afin de valider les modèles théoriques et numériques une machine d'essais (MEGAPASCALE) pour étudier la lubrification des paliers de bielle dans des conditions de fonctionnement réelles et sévères est étudiée et réalisée. Les diagrammes de charge obtenus (90kN en compression et 60 kN en traction pour une vitesse de rotation de 20000 tr/min) sont des diagrammes essentiellement "inertiels" comme ceux rencontrés dans des moteurs à hauts régimes. Une description détaillée des nombreuses solutions originales adoptées ainsi que le fonctionnement du banc est présentée.

Since boiling heat transfer affords a very effective means to transfer heat, it is implemented in numerous technologies and industries ranging from large power generation plants to micro-electronic thermal management. Although having been a subject of research for several decades, an accurate prediction of boiling heat transfer is still challenging due to the complexity of the coupled mechanisms involved. It appears that the boiling heat transfer coefficient is intimately related to bubble dynamics (i.e. bubble nucleation, growth and detachment) as well as factors such as nucleation site density and interaction between neighbouring and successive bubbles. In order to contribute to the understanding of the boiling phenomenon, an experimental investigation of saturated pool boiling from a single or two neighbouring artificial nucleation sites on a polished copper surface has been performed. The bubble growth dynamics has been characterized for different wall superheats and a experimental growth law has been established. The interaction between successive bubbles from the same nucleation site has been studied, showing the bubble shape oscillations that can be caused by these interactions. The forces acting on a growing bubble has been reviewed, and a complete momentum balance has been made for all stages of bubble growth. The curvature along the interface has been measured, and indications concerning the mechanism of bubble detachment have been suggested. The rise of bubble after detachment has been investigated, and the maximum velocity reached before a change of direction has been estimated and compared to existing models from the literature. The interaction between bubbles growing side by side has been studied: the generation and propagation of a wave front during the coalescence of two bubbles has been highlighted. As boiling heat transfer enhancement techniques are being imagined and developed, this study also focuses on the electrohydrodynamic enhancement technique. Boiling experiments have been performed in the presence of electric fields, and their effects on heat transfer and bubble dynamics have been characterized. Although the volume of the bubbles at detachment and the relationship between the bubble frequency and the wall superheat were not affected, the bubble growth curve was modified. The bubbles were elongated in the direction of the electric field, and this elongation was estimated and compared to other studies from the literature. The rising velocity of the bubble was reduced in the presence of electric field, and the behaviour of bubbles growing side by side was modified, the electric field causing the bubbles to repeal each other. These results, obtained in a fully controlled environment, provide compelling evidence that electric fields can be implemented to alter the bubble dynamics and subsequently heat transfer rates during boiling of dielectric fluids.

Les émissions de polluants dans l'atmosphère représentent l'un des objectifs majeurs à l'heure actuelle. Dans le domaine automobile, la réduction des émissions de CO2 repose en partie sur l'amélioration du rendement moteur. Pour ce faire, ces travaux de thèse sur la texturation de surface à micro et nano échelle proposent de diminuer les pertes par frottements dans les moteurs thermiques alternatifs à combustion interne. Le poste moteur retenu dans cette thèse est le segment/piston/chemise car près de 40 % des pertes par frottement y sont générées. On s'intéresse à la texturation par LASER femtoseconde de cavités sur la surface du segment coup de feu. Le comportement tribologique de surfaces texturées est étudié en régime ElastoHydroDynamique (EHD) et Limite. En régime EHD, la capacité de formation d'un film lubrifiant et le contrôle du frottement en surface texturée indique un comportement tribologique dépendant du couplage entre les paramètres expérimentaux - cinématique des surfaces, pression de contact, taux de rétention en huile et temps de résidence des textures dans le contact et les paramètres géométriques - diamètre, profondeur, densité de textures. En régime Limite, l'influence des textures sur le comportement tribologique a permis de confirmer l'hypothèse sur le rôle de piégeage des débris par les cavités et de mettre en évidence des configurations de réseaux réduisant le coefficient de frottement pour des profondeurs faibles.

O presente trabalho destina-se à discussão sobre o cálculo de vida útil de rolamentos. Mostrando o avanço do processo de cálculo ao longo das décadas até o mais alto grau de desenvolvimento atual. A preocupação do texto é demonstrar de forma simples e objetiva as divergências que existem entre a formulação teórica e a real vida dos rolamentos, no que tange a fadiga de contato. Neste contexto foram realizados testes, em máquina especialmente destinada ao ensaio da fadiga de rolamentos. Variando-se para as duas séries de ensaios, apenas, a temperatura (aproximadamente 85°C e 110°C). Os resultados obtidos indicam que a vida real dos rolamentos apresenta grande divergência se comparada com a vida útil calculada, principalmente, no regime com maior temperatura. Atribui-se a esta disparidade, a ausência de cálculos precisos quanto à correlação da vida útil com o fator l, que é uma forma de se calcular o espaçamento entre as superfícies de contato, e o não emprego do cálculo do fator de carga, na formulação da vida útil de rolamentos. / The present work has the purpose of discussing the life of rolling bearings, describing the evolution of bearing life calculation until its current state of the art. Our focus is to demonstrate, simply and objectively, the inconsistencies occurring between the actual life of rolling bearings and their theoretical fatigue life estimation. For such purpose, tests were developed in a special bearing test rig to assess bearing fatigue. Two test sets were carried out with temperature being the only variation (approximately 85°C and 110°C). Results obtained from these tests suggest that the real life of rolling bearings is indeed very different from calculated bearing life, especially under higher temperature. Such disparity can be attributed to the lack of a precise computation of the relationship between bearing real life and the l factor - which determines the thickness of lubricant separating raceways and balls - as well as to the failure to compute the load factor in bearing life estimation.

Une lubrification suffisante est essentielle au bon fonctionnement des mécanismes et/ou composants comme par exemple les paliers à roulement. Par contre, les lubrifiants contiennent souvent des débris d’usure ou des polluants extérieurs. Ces particules micrométriques peuvent pénétrer des contacts d’épaisseur inférieure au micromètre induisant des empruntes ou indents pouvant conduire à des endommagements irréversibles pour les surfaces en contact. L’objet de ce travail est l’étude du piégeage de polluants solides à l’aide de particules sphériques d’acier, d’un point de vue théorique, numérique et expérimental. Dans un premier temps, une étude phénoménologique a été proposée à l’aide d’une nouvelle méthode expérimentale basée sur la technique PIV combinée à un tribomètre bille/disque. Les trajectoires des polluants à l’entrée du contact ont pu ainsi être identifiées. En parallèle, un modèle numérique d’écoulement du lubrifiant a été développé pour permettre l’évaluation des conditions menant au piégeage ou non de particules. Finalement, des expériences sur une machine bi-disques en conditions de lubrification polluée contrôlée ont permis de valider les tendances observées pour le piégeage. Une première série de résultats a montré que le piégeage de contaminants est fortement dépendant du profil de vitesse du lubrifiant. Un taux de piégeage très hétérogène a été observé sur des contacts avec une ellipticité transverse à l’écoulement variable. De manière surprenante, malgré une augmentation de la largeur de contact, une forte diminution du nombre de particules piégées a été observée dans des contacts elliptiques. Il a été démontré que cette diminution pouvait être imputée à la présence d’importants reflux de lubrifiant dans les contacts elliptiques larges. L’étude de contacts hybrides, nitrure de silicium–acier, a montré une bonne résistance à l’indentation du nitrure de silicium. Il est à noter que les contacts hybrides présentent des niveaux de piégeage similaire à un contact tout acier. / Contact lubrication is essential in a wide range of mechanical systems like rolling element bearings (REBs). A minimum quantity of clean lubricant all along the bearing life is necessary but difficult to ensure. In fact, lubricants contain inevitably wear debris or external particles, like dust. Carried by the lubricant in the vicinity of elastohydrodynamic (EHD) contacts, particles can be entrapped with disastrous consequences for contacting surfaces. Entrapment of micrometric particles in submicrometric contacting gaps means irreversible damages for the surfaces. Damages weaken the surfaces and reduce significantly the REBs lifetime. The goal of this work is to analyze the critical particle entrainments in the contact inlet. Entrapment of steel spherical particles was investigated from the numerical and experimental point of view. Firstly, the phenomenology of entrapment was explored with a new experimental method based on Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique installed on a tribometer. It enabled the evaluation of velocity profiles in the contact inlet and the tracking of particles within EHD contacts. Secondly, a numerical modelling of the inlet flow for EHD contacts, including the particle tracking, was developed. Finally, tests on a twin-disc machine with a controlled level of well-defined contamination were conducted to validate previous conclusions. A first set of results showed that particle entrapment is highly dependent on the lubricant velocity profile. Depending on contact geometry, from point to wide elliptical contacts, different entrapment probability were revealed. Surprisingly, increasing contact width with wide elliptical contacts leads to a drop of entrapped particles. It was demonstrated that this phenomenon is due to backflows occurring upstream from these contacts. Introducing a hybrid pair of contacting materials (silicon nitride–steel), dents on the surfaces due to entrapped particles were explored. It has been confirmed that silicon nitride surface offers a real ability to resist to indentation. It was also noticed that the entrapment probability for silicon nitride–steel contacts is equivalent to a steel–steel one.

The aim of this diploma thesis is to describe the influence of individual operating parameters on thickness and temperature distribution of elastohydrodynamic contact under high slip ratio. In this work, the distribution of the lubricant film thickness is determined by optical interferometry and the temperature mapping in EHL contact is realized by infrared microscopy. Two optical filters were used to separate the radiation of contact surfaces and oil. Temperature of disk surface was measured using a sapphire disk with chromium layer that shielded radiation from ball and oil. The experimental device was modified to simulate the conditions of the various vectors between entrainment and sliding speed. The results extend existing information about behavior of EHL contact under high slip ratio conditions.