<p> <b>Purpose:</b> The purpose of this mixed-methods phenomenological study was to describe elementary school general education teachers&rsquo; perceptions of how their efficacy, as teachers, was affected by their experiences in implementing the PBIS framework. This study also sought to determine a better understanding of the skills necessary to impact all students while increasing teachers&rsquo; efficacy and their ability to carry out their obligations in facilitating student academic success and student discipline. </p><p> <b>Methodology:</b> Consistent with a mixed-methods approach, the instruments used in this study collected descriptive data and perceptual data from a group of elementary general education teachers from Riverside County, California. Through an electronic format, two different surveys were administered to participating elementary school teachers. In addition, principals of participating PBIS elementary schools referred teachers from their sites to participate in semistructured interviews. </p><p> <b>Findings:</b> Findings showed that the implementation of PBIS had positive effects on teachers&rsquo; efficacy, thus affecting their classroom experiences and student conduct. To understand teachers&rsquo; perceptions of how the implementation of PBIS was affecting their efficacy, the researcher first had to understand the teachers&rsquo; perceptions of how PBIS was being implemented at their sites. Findings demonstrated that teachers did not have a clear understanding of PBIS. However, teachers did understand and used the strategies learned through the implementation of PBIS. They included the opportunity to model, practice, and apply appropriate behavior and the strategies.</p><p> <b>Conclusions:</b> Teachers perceived that they were able to influence the three domains of teacher efficacy&mdash;student engagement, instructional strategies, and classroom management&mdash;and the skills within each; learn the strategies and supports to redirect student behavior; and influence classroom management. Findings from this study also revealed that teachers could redirect student behaviors by providing students with clear expectations, praise, positive student recognition, and rewards.</p>

<p>Makerspaces have experienced a surge in popularity in recent years, resulting in an influx of Maker education in K-12 settings. While Makerspaces have been studied abundantly in museums, libraries, and in after-school programs, little research has been conducted inside the K- 12 school day. The goal of this study is to discover insights of established Makerspaces inside the K-12 school environment. In this exploratory mixed methods study, educators were survived, examining school and participant demographics, Makerspace setup, as well as intersections of technology, content, and pedagogy. Next, the researcher conducted a follow-up interview with selected participants based on diversity in the following key demographic areas: teacher gender, professional background, and school environment. In order to better understand K-12 implementation of Makerspaces, the study examines seven characteristics of Makerspaces: setting, computational thinking, participant structures, teacher training, gender and racial issues, assessment, and sustainability. The data was examined through TPACK framework with a constructivist approach. Makerspaces can empower students to invent, prototype, and tinker with low-cost technology tools such as microcircuits and fabrication tools such as 3d printers. The goal of this study is to add to the body of literature regarding the role and potential value of Makerspaces in school environments. This exploration of Makerspaces in K-12 setting could be generalized to serve as a guide for teachers who want to establish their own Makerspace.

<p> Autism research continues to refine the exact rate of autism; it also attempts to approximate the undiagnosed rate of autism to capture the number of individuals functioning on the high-end of the spectrum without a formal diagnosis. Whether students exhibiting characteristics of autism have a formal diagnosis or not, many enrolled in public education classrooms are most appropriately served in the general education setting. This study examined the characteristics of students in general education settings to ascertain the number of students diagnosed with autism. Additionally, it investigated the educational practices regularly applied in the general education setting in conjunction with the classroom teacher&rsquo;s knowledge of those practices most beneficial to students with autism. This mixed methods investigation used a survey to examine practices in two Utah school districts. Reported rates of students who were served under an IEP or 504 and identified as having autism were consistent with the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reporting rates of autism prevalence in the United States. Teachers identified instructional practices effective for students with autism 80% of the time. Additionally, teachers reported they &ldquo;always&rdquo; or &ldquo;often&rdquo; used 91.7% of the instructional practices in their classrooms that have been identified as effective for students with autism. Fisher&rsquo;s exact test yielded no statistically significant differences between groups of participants. Themes from open-ended survey responses revealed students with significant learning differences impact the delivery of the curriculum, but teachers believe the general education setting is most appropriate for students with learning differences. Teachers also report feeling inadequately prepared to teach students with autism. Data suggests that additional research is needed regarding the design and implementation of universal classroom instructional strategies to meet the needs of all learners in the general education setting.</p>

<p> This mixed-methods study included an in-depth look at the perceptions of first-grade teachers in southwest Missouri to gain insight into the knowledge, understanding, and perceptions of teachers when considering reading achievement and how it relates to Reading Recovery, student engagement, professional development, and socioeconomic status. A second piece to the study included a quantitative examination of the correlation between reading achievement and attendance. Focus groups were formed and an 11-question interview was conducted to gather insight into the perceptions of first-grade teachers across five different counties. Additionally, reading data and attendance from 249 students in those schools were used to determine if a correlation exists between reading achievement and student attendance. After completion of all focus groups, it was evident many commonalities exist among first-grade teachers across multiple districts. Most teachers find value in Reading Recovery, understand the importance of student engagement, see the disadvantages of those students who arrive from lower socioeconomic status families, and value professional development. Reading and attendance data revealed students with attendance greater than 94% have improved reading achievement over those with attendance below 94%. The results of this study can provide insight for administrators and district leaders when considering appropriate professional development in the area of reading achievement.</p>

<p> Delays in the development of early literacy skills are associated with a wrath of negative educational outcomes and so addressing such delays is one of the most pressing challenges in education. This study examines the effectiveness of the Orton-Gillingham (OG) Method, a multisensory reading program where instruction utilizes two or more senses simultaneously. Originally developed in the 1930s as a program for dyslexic students, OG has seen continual use since its creation and is endorsed by the American Dyslexic Foundation and the International Dyslexic Foundation. Over the past two decades OG has increasingly been incorporated into general education settings in the primary grades as a reading intervention for struggling readers regardless of whether they have dyslexia. However, there is a dearth of research demonstrating its causal effect as a reading intervention for children with dyslexia or who are experiencing reading delays for other reasons. Two quasi-experimental methods, Regression Discontinuity Design and Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design with propensity scores, are used to test the efficacy of an OG-based, general education reading intervention on a sample of over 700 kindergarten and first grade students who are experiencing reading delays from a large district in California. The Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) assessments were used to assign students to the intervention and measure their end-of-year reading outcomes. The results of both analyses revealed no effect for students enrolled in the intervention in either kindergarten or first grade. Within the year that students received the intervention, a small but non-significant gain on end-of-year DIBELS composite scores was found. Long-term outcomes showed that over half of the students in the intervention were still not meeting reading targets by the end of second grade. Moreover, while the treatment effect was found to vary significantly across classrooms and across schools, no available measures classroom or school characteristics where associated with that variation. These findings suggest that certain applications of the OG methodologies may not be effective in general education settings.</p>

<p> This study addressed the marginalization of elementary physical education and professional practice. This project applied proven surveys, scales, and qualitative processes; observations, interviews, and focus groups to measure and understand how physical educators can counter the impressions of stakeholders regarding the subject as inconsequential. Also, the research explained and recognized some cultural procedures in elementary physical education that promoted and inhibited proper student outcomes. The main settings for this study took place in two rural schools in small school systems. In addition, information was obtained through social media venues. The findings along with the literature review established the subject is marginalized; however, PE teachers can influence and combat the issues.</p>

<p> Social-emotional learning has gained much leverage in education reform discussions, but little research has been done on the effectiveness of SEL programs in rural classroom settings. This thesis studies the outcomes of one SEL curriculum, Project Happiness, in a rural project-based learning school, Teton Valley Community School. Additionally, this thesis aims to identify teaching practices that promote students&rsquo; SEL competencies. The data was collected in a split third and fourth grade classroom over a nine-week period from April 2015 to June 2015. The program led to student growth in social and emotional competencies, specifically self-awareness and self-management. Limitations of the study and implications for further research are discussed. </p><p>

<p> Due in part to increasing state standards that require engineering in K-12 curricula and the Next Generation Science Standards&rsquo; incorporation of engineering outcomes, inclusion of engineering into elementary classrooms is on the rise. Teacher development and experiences in learning about and implementing engineering have been studied, but elementary students&rsquo; experiences when learning about engineering have not been explored.</p><p> The purpose of this study is to address the question: How do elementary students&rsquo; knowledge of, attitudes toward, and overall conceptions of engineering evolve over three years of engineering instruction?</p><p> This study follows seven elementary school students through three years of engineering instruction from second through fourth grade. During each year of the study, students took part in one complete Engineering is Elementary unit, preparatory engineering lessons discussing engineering and technology, and optional additional engineering design activities. Data was collected at the beginning and end of each school year, including a semi-structured interview, a Draw an Engineer Task, the Engineering Identity Development Scale, and a Student Knowledge Test. This data was used to build descriptive case studies for each individual student, addressing the research question at the beginning and end of each school year. A cross-case analysis compares findings across all seven students to further explore the research question.</p><p> Through the engineering intervention, students were expected to learn that engineers design technology. For a complete understanding, students needed to know that technology is any object, process, or system that is man-made in order to solve a problem. They also needed to understand engineering as a technical design process where the outcome is the complete plan for a product or process, not necessarily the product or process itself. All of the students in the study described engineering as design and nearly all of the students correctly described technology as man-made, useful items at some point during the study. Three of the seven students described engineering as design of technology with a correct description of technology by their third year. Students had positive attitudes toward engineering, however many did not recognize some of the activities as engineering, attributing them to science instead. Overall, students were not interested in pursuing engineering as a primary career option though they enjoyed the in-class engineering activities. Students&rsquo; conceptions of engineers and engineering evolved from na&iuml;ve representations including mechanics and laborers to designers during the study. The patterns and rates of change differed between students; some quickly understood engineering as design and retained this understanding, while others slowly or partially developed an understanding of engineering as design.</p><p> The findings of this study have implications for practice and future research. Educators need to be prepared for strongly-held misconceptions regarding engineering and technology and be explicit when presenting engineering, especially when it is presented in a science context. Elementary students are able to understand engineering as design, however not all students fully grasped this concept. Future research is needed to explore how students understand technology, how elementary students understand design at their developmental level, and what long-term impact a foundation of engineering in elementary grades provides. </p>

<p> This study examined the social and cultural capital aspects of bicultural identity on student engagement for elementary students in dual immersion classes. The current definition for a dual immersion program states that students will gain bilingual, biliteracy and bicultural skills. While current research has examined the extent to which students gain bilingual and biliteracy skills in dual immersion programs, little exists on the third aspect of the triad, biculturalism. The research in this study examines the extent to which biculturalism exists within the dual immersion classroom and how it influences student engagement. Using the narrative inquiry approach, the researcher listened to the authentic voices of the participants and conveyed their story. Nvivo software was used as a tool to code and analyze emerging themes related to bicultural identity and student engagement. The researcher conducted semi structured conversational interviews with a preselected interview pool of elementary students, parents, dual immersion teachers and administrators. The findings from the research suggest strong ties between behavioral and emotional engagement with the development of a bicultural identity. Participants explained in detail how communication, trusting relationships and social networks impact the achievement as well as the identity of the students. Implications and recommendations for future research and practice are discussed.</p>

<p> <b>Purpose.</b> The purpose of this quantitative study, consistent with the original study by Bell (2006), was to examine the relationships between spirituality and job satisfaction among elementary school teachers.</p><p> <b>Methodology.</b> The Spirituality Assessment Scale (SAS; Howden, 1992) was used to determine the spirituality scores and the level of spirituality among teachers. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) short form (Weiss, Dawis, England, &amp; Lofquist, 1967) was used to determine intrinsic satisfaction and general satisfaction. The general satisfaction and spirituality scores were compared to determine if a relationship exists between job satisfaction and spirituality. Demographic variables of age, educational level, grade level taught, and numbers of years teaching were used to determine additional relationships between spirituality and job satisfaction among teachers. </p><p> Findings and Conclusions. A moderate significant positive correlation was found between spirituality and general job satisfaction. Similarly, a higher significant positive correlation was found between spirituality and intrinsic job satisfaction. These findings seem to confirm the idea that spirituality is closely related to general job satisfaction levels for elementary school teachers. No significant differences where noted on the spirituality measure or the general job satisfaction scale on any of the demographic aspects of the participant sample.</p><p> Recommendations. Future research should utilize this study to examine whether a strong sense of spirituality among educational leaders correlates to teacher job satisfaction. Studies should also examine where high levels of spirituality among teachers would positively impact the academic performance of their students. Researchers may also wish to consider the following question: Why did the correlation between spirituality and job satisfaction have a moderate significant relationship, and yet the overall job satisfaction scores of this group indicate low levels of general job satisfaction?</p>