This report gives a general overview of the natural gas resources in the world, along with its importance as a source of producing energy, and technical uses. It also draws attention to the political issues raised by natural gas exploitation and the steps being taken to address them. It also discusses the long-term measures required to achieve net zero emissions. With enormous supplies spread across several locations, natural gas is essential to the world's energy balance. Its better burning characteristics makes it a desirable substitute for other fossil fuels, especially for the production of power, heating, and industrial activities. Economic growth and global energy security are significantly impacted by the availability of natural gas resources. However, natural gas extraction and use, raise additional environmental issues, particularly in light of its greenhouse gas emissions have been discussed. Despite producing less carbon dioxide than either coal or oil, natural gas is a significant source of methane emissions, a powerful greenhouse gas. So a deep dive into why methane is a stronger greenhouse gas has been presented. It is observed that the fracking, flaring and methane leaks during the mining, transportation, and storage processes are the major concerns for climate change mitigation. Furthermore, natural gas is intertwined with political issues due to its geopolitical nature and the reliance of resource-rich nations on it as a significant source of income. It is observed that geopolitical tensions and potential wars are frequently caused by disagreements over ownership, cost, and transit routes. Geopolitical stability and energy security will be impacted by a region's reliance on imported natural gas. Various mitigation measures have been proposed and implemented to tackle the environmental challenges posed by natural gas are discussed. These include improving extraction techniques such as improved drilling methods and improved leak detection systems and investing in cleaner technologies, such as carbon capture utilization and storage (CCUS). Policies and rules are also being developed to encourage the use of advance energy efficiency measures and to promote the use of renewable energy sources in addition to natural gas. These measures aim to minimize the carbon footprint of natural gas and transition towards a more sustainable energy system. However, achieving long-term sustainability and net zero emissions (NZE) will require more profound transformations. To achieve NZE, EU has proposed the fit for 55 package. Some of the proposals of the fit for 55 package to achieve NZE 2030 target have been discussed. This involves developing alternative energy sources and technologies, such as renewable energy and the use of alternate fuels in various sectors. It also entails promoting energy conservation, implementing rigorous emissions regulations, fostering international cooperation, and investing in research and development for innovative solutions. Implementing all these measures ensure a sustainable and secured energy for future generations.

Industry is responsible for approximately 30 % of the total emissions of greenhouse gases, both globally and in Sweden. Given the climate targets set out in the Paris agreement, the industry is facing a challenging future, requiring effective policies to aid the transition. Energy system optimisation models are commonly used for analysing the impact from different policies and for assessing the transition to a climate-neutral energy system. In the past, the primary focus of the models has been on the stationary energy sector, and less on the industry. This thesis work, therefore, aims to improve energy system optimisation models as a tool for decision support and policy analysis about the industry. An improved modelling structure of the industry sector is developed and a wide range of future technology options that can support the transition to a climate-neutral industry is identified. The improved model is then applied in different scenario analysis, assessing how the Swedish industry can meet net-zero CO2-emission under resource limitations. The methodology applied is energy system analysis with a focus on the process of modelling, an iterative process of i) model conceptualisation, ii) model computation and iii) model result interpretation. Two different models for the evaluation of the Swedish industry are developed and used; a TIMES based model (cost-minimisation) and a small linear optimisation model (resource optimisation). An outcome from developing the model structure was that the following important aspects need to be represented in the model to capture the transition to a climate-neutral industry sector; i) synergies between different types of industrial processes, ii) setup of process chains based on important tradeable materials, iii) detailed technology representation. When identifying and analysing future technologies, it was concluded that there are plenty of technology options for Swedish industry to become fossil-free. Technology options were identified that enable all studied site categories (representing approximately 92 % of the CO2 emissions from Swedish industry in 2015) to reach net-zero CO2-emissions via either electrification (direct electric heating or via power to gas) or biofuels usage. CCS options were implemented for iron and steel industry, chemical industry, cement- and limestone industry and aluminium industry, and for most of the industrial energy conversion technologies. Although technology options for deep reductions in CO2 emissions exist, many of them require further development to enable full-scale implementation, as concluded in paper III. The scenario analysis performed in paper I and paper II gives insights into key resources and technologies enabling the industry to reach net-zero CO2 emissions. About resources, biomass is seemingly the most cost-efficient option for reaching ambitious climate targets, e.g. according to the findings in paper II biomass is consistently preferred over electrified alternatives. However, the availability of biomass is limited, and increased electrification of technologies is unavoidable to achieve sustainable use of it (as seen in paper I and paper II). Finally, there is not one key enabling technology but rather key groups of enabling technologies that create cross-technology synergies, providing different benefits depending on resource availability and the overall needs of the system in different scenarios.

<p> An experimental study of vibrational energy transfer in ortho and para NH3(v2) is presented. The vibrational relaxation rates are necessary to characterize mid-IR pulsed and cw NH3 lasers, and the interpretation of these rates is of theoretical importance. Accurate information on the (V-T) process in NH3/N2 mixtures and the (V-V) energy transfer between ortho and para 15NH3 and 14NH3 is now available. </p> <p> First, NH 3 linestrengths and linewidths were accurately measured with a tunable diode laser (TDL) so that ammonia concentrations could be calculated from TDL scans. The energy transfer mechanisms were studied by exciting the v2 vibration of NH3 with a Q-switched cO2 laser and probing the subsequent changes in population with a TDL. A difference in v 2 lifetimes was observed between ortho and para NH3 transitions, and is explained by a (V-V) transfer of energy between the NH3 species. An isolated ortho 15NH3 absorption line was pumped and vibrational transfer of energy was observed to ortho and para 14NH3 and 15NH3. </p> / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

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The future energy transition will reshape the current fossil energy system with low-carbon energy sources. The new technologies and State policies will promote the implementation of different energy carrier sources such as electricity, ammonia, biomass and hydrogen. However, volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity are defining a new global framework for energy systems. Despite Covid-19, the Russian and Ukrainian war, among other disruptive events, the pursuit of zero emissions remains one of the ambitions of the European Union, and renewable hydrogen has been selected to achieve these goals. The European Union through its Hydrogen Strategy aims to scale the hydrogen energy system based on renewable hydrogen in the coming years. For the present analysis, Sweden and Spain have been selected and it has been verified how the energy baseline, the national hydrogen strategies, and the main companies will shape the future hydrogen energy system of both countries. The selected method was a holistic qualitative and quantitative analysis of the energy systems of Sweden and Spain, focusing on the interactions inside and outside the energy system at the national level. The national strategies, the energy background of the countries, and the investments from the OMX-Stockholm30 stock exchange for Sweden and IBEX-35 for the Spanish case were analysed. Only bibliographic sources, internet news, and public reports from brokerage houses were used as material. The main results of the work show two very different ways of implementing national hydrogen policies. On the one hand, Sweden has high ambitions to produce renewable hydrogen up to 5 GW from electrolysers by 2030. Sweden is currently focusing its hydrogen energy system on renewable hydrogen steelmaking projects such as HYBRIT or GreenSteel. On the other hand, Spain has a lower national ambition with only 4 GW of electrolysers by 2030 according to its national roadmap. However, the IBEX-35 companies have already planned more than 13 GW of electrolyser capacity with the Catalina, SHYNE, HYDEAL projects, among others. The main investments will focus on sectors that are difficult to abate, such as oil &amp; gas and fertilizers, and with the participation of the steel industry.