Compliance monitoring is a continuous process used to ensure that conditions stipulated in an environmental authorisation are adhered to. Compliance monitoring is a key component of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and EIA follow-up. The aim of this research was to critically assess EIA follow-up conditions formulated for Environmental Authorisations in Mpumalanga Province. The practicability of conditions set out in the authorisation for EIA follow-up are of particular concern. Forty-two (42) environmental authorisations (EAs) issued under the 2010 NEMA EIA regulations were reviewed and assessed to analyse information relating to follow-up practice. In order to synthesise the data effectively and create a comprehensive analysis, the EAs were divided into project type categories rather than listed activity categories. The assessment results on the strengths and weaknesses related to compliance monitoring and enforcement of the authorisation conditions revealed that the EIA follow-up conditions in Mpumalanga do make provision of EIA follow-up. The EAs fulfils the requirements of regulation 37 of the NEMA EIA regulations 2010 by promoting compliance monitoring of impacts. However, some conditions raises difficulty in monitoring due to their impracticability. Another weakness is that conditions focus mainly on the construction phase and very little attention is paid to operational and decommissioning impacts. The analyses results show that the practicability of the authorised conditions for environmental compliance monitoring had the following challenges: conditions intended to mitigate the adverse environmental impacts are generic and do not apply to specific projects or activities being authorised and there are no clearly defined timeframes for conditions requiring repetitive monitoring. Moreover, the study revealed gaps in monitoring of the authorised conditions that included poor clarity of roles of environmental control officers (ECOs) and auditors and a lack of reference to sections to be complied with pertaining to other relevant legislation. The critical assessment of the EIA follow-up conditions formulated for Environmental Authorisations in Mpumalanga Province indicate that the formulation of conditions have implications in ensuring that compliance is effectively implemented. Clearly defined conditions will ensure proper interpretation and correct implementation for compliance purposes. / M (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

An independent industry of Environmental Control Officers (ECOs) is active on various construction sites across South Africa. It forms part of a global network of verifiers, such as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and EIA follow-up verifiers. This network authenticates statements about and the implementation of sustainability commitments made during the planning phase of major construction projects. International studies show that the construction industry is experiencing many challenges to deliver sustainability commitments, including inadequate collaboration between role players, illdefined roles and responsibilities, and insufficient use of environmental governance approaches. On-site verifiers like ECOs may aid in restraining these challenges by bridging ineffective governance approaches, such as classic EIA with new governance approaches, for instance self-responsibility (e.g. Environmental Management Systems (EMSs)) and involvement of third parties. Moreover, an “independent from all” verification function may be vital in developing countries such as South Africa, where trust between the government, market and public is particularly fragile due to historical injustices. Interestingly, limited learning has been drawn and shared from this function’s real-world experience. There are also differing views on the role, independence and value of ECOs, due to roles, frequent interaction with persons responsible for delivering sustainability commitments, and collaboration with third parties being ill-defined. The overarching purpose of this study is to advance understanding of independent ECOs in major South African construction projects. Three lines of inquiry are followed. The first is to define what the role is, or ideally should be, of an ECO in the South African compliance monitoring and enforcement effort. The second is to identify what factors might influence the independence of verifiers. The third is to appraise how and to what extent independent EIA follow-up verifiers add value in major construction projects in the developing country context of South Africa. This study’s research assumptions are based on the real world of ECOs and uses a mixed method research approach to draw knowledge from the industry. The strategies of inquiry include a survey, interviews, and multiple case study evaluations. The methods for data collection include literature review, a self-administered survey questionnaire, semi-structured interviews, video material, observations of practice at case studies, and the collection of project documentation. The methods used for data analysis are the categorisation and measuring of opinions and statements of survey participants, the analysis of video material and project documentation, and the nominal categorisation and ordinal scaling of case study results. Three journal articles capture the essence of the research results and form part of the thesis report, as prescribed by the North-West University’s rules for doctoral theses in article format. All three articles were peer-reviewed and published in journals aimed at international audiences. Article 1 of the thesis highlights that an industry of ECOs fulfils numerous roles at various construction sites across South Africa. The results identify the importance of ECOs functioning independently of all role-players, but warn that obsessing about independence may compromise the ability of ECOs to fulfil their roles. The results also show that industry is in need of competence and the regulation thereof, as well as support from all role players. By drawing from the research results, the thesis defines an ECO. Article 2 of the thesis reiterates that independence is central to internationally acclaimed verification fields and important to ensure the credibility of EIA. The study identifies 18 factors that might influence the independence of EIA follow-up verifiers and divides the factors into five categories: financial, commercial, professional, personal, and other. By identifying and sharing these factors, this thesis aids in anticipating and avoiding potential conflict of interest between environmental role players. Article 3 strengthens the continuum between environmental governance approaches by conceptualising a framework for appraising the value of independent EIA follow-up verifiers. The framework provides for inter-linking principles and objectives of sustainability to the performance areas of EIA, EIA follow-up and the EMS. The appraisal results indicate that independent verifiers add most value when they are involved in screening, checking compliance, influencing decisions, community engagement, and integrating environmental governance approaches. The study confirms the benefits of adaptable, proactive, experienced, and independent EIA follow-up verifiers, such as ECOs, on major South African construction projects. / PhD (Geography and Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The gold mining industry pollutes both water and air resources in numerous ways. Of these, air pollution from greenhouse gasses inducing climate change poses the highest threat to human existence, with water scarcity as a result of pollution presenting the third highest risk (Mathews, 2007; Akorede et al., 2012; Jones et al., 1988). Water pollution, indirect air pollution and direct air pollution should be mitigated for sustainable gold mining. Environmental impact reduction is achieved by the implementation of effective Environmental Management Systems (EMSs). These systems aim to achieve ISO 14001-compliance by setting targets and implementing a systematic approach to achieving these targets. However, ISO 14001-compliant systems do not ensure environmental impact reduction and give the mine no competitive edge (Hilson & Nayee, 2002). EMSs available are too generic for implementation on gold mines. Reporting on Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) on gold mines should also be improved as it is unclear exactly what values should be reported on. This is due to a general lack of an environmental reporting standard (Jones, 2010). Manpower and expertise to identify and implement projects is limited and the mines need assistance with the implementation of projects to effect resource pollution. Priority for the mines is an emphasis on production and safety rather than environmental impact reduction, so implementing projects to reduce pollution is often neglected. A novel sustainability framework is developed in this study. In this framework a database of electricity- and environmental impact reduction projects is created that can be implemented in the gold mining industry. Projects are automatically identified by monitoring key operational indicators. By involving a third party in the form of an Energy Services Company (ESCO), project funding for these sustainability projects can be attained. This novel approach to environmental impact reduction creates a situation where ESCOs implement these EMSs at a reduced cost to the mines. This reduces the cost of lowering the mine’s environmental impact, while aiding the ESCO in identifying sustainability projects. KPIs from various studies are consolidated to determine exactly what values should be reported on. These values are incorporated into a successful EMS. This allows the availability of all the necessary data for reporting to the Department of Energy (DoE) and the South African National Energy Development Institute (SANEDI) on electricity-savings. Projects are prioritised based on an integrated electricity- and environmental impact reduction payback approach. This approach allows funding options to be assessed for each project individually, based on both electricity- and environmental impact reduction advantages. This allowed the best funding option for each individual project to be determined. Automatic identification of these projects reduces the required manpower and resources to implement sustainability projects. Projects proposed by this study showed a combined energy efficiency reduction of 11.8 MW and achieved a load shift of 15.6 MW. In addition to electricity reduction, these projects also reduced the water usage by 1135 Ml per annum and the carbon dioxide equivalent production by 214 205 ton per annum. The proposed projects were effective at increasing the sustainability of gold mining. It also streamlined the implementation of these projects on gold mines. By applying this framework, sustainability improvements can now be achieved on gold mines worldwide. / PhD (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Public participation is an integral part of the environmental impact assessment (EIA) process, as it provides opportunities for interested and affected parties (I&APs) to participate in the decision making process. The objective of public participation is to accomplish social and environmental justice and to promote informed decision making. Concern however exists that public participation is seen and implemented as a rigid “one size fits all” process and that the inputs by I&APs are limited to the pre-authorisation phases i.e. the I&APs are not involved in the environmental management of the full life cycle of the activity. The problem appears to stem from the fact that the implementation of the public participation process is associated with a number of shortcomings and may be seen as a paper exercise to satisfy the requirements of the National Environmental Management Act. The aim of the research is to determine the effectiveness of public participation in EIA processes, using a group of selected South African case studies. A structured, survey-based research study was conducted with I&APs, environmental assessment practitioners (EAPs) and officials from relevant decision making bodies (competent authorities). The main aim of the research has been achieved and all research objectives answered. The study concludes that public participation in EIA processes is not purely a paper exercise, but does in fact enhance decision making. However, there are widespread concerns regarding the selection of alternatives and the alignment of public participation processes in other environmental assessments. / M (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Compliance monitoring is a continuous process used to ensure that conditions stipulated in an environmental authorisation are adhered to. Compliance monitoring is a key component of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and EIA follow-up. The aim of this research was to critically assess EIA follow-up conditions formulated for Environmental Authorisations in Mpumalanga Province. The practicability of conditions set out in the authorisation for EIA follow-up are of particular concern. Forty-two (42) environmental authorisations (EAs) issued under the 2010 NEMA EIA regulations were reviewed and assessed to analyse information relating to follow-up practice. In order to synthesise the data effectively and create a comprehensive analysis, the EAs were divided into project type categories rather than listed activity categories. The assessment results on the strengths and weaknesses related to compliance monitoring and enforcement of the authorisation conditions revealed that the EIA follow-up conditions in Mpumalanga do make provision of EIA follow-up. The EAs fulfils the requirements of regulation 37 of the NEMA EIA regulations 2010 by promoting compliance monitoring of impacts. However, some conditions raises difficulty in monitoring due to their impracticability. Another weakness is that conditions focus mainly on the construction phase and very little attention is paid to operational and decommissioning impacts. The analyses results show that the practicability of the authorised conditions for environmental compliance monitoring had the following challenges: conditions intended to mitigate the adverse environmental impacts are generic and do not apply to specific projects or activities being authorised and there are no clearly defined timeframes for conditions requiring repetitive monitoring. Moreover, the study revealed gaps in monitoring of the authorised conditions that included poor clarity of roles of environmental control officers (ECOs) and auditors and a lack of reference to sections to be complied with pertaining to other relevant legislation. The critical assessment of the EIA follow-up conditions formulated for Environmental Authorisations in Mpumalanga Province indicate that the formulation of conditions have implications in ensuring that compliance is effectively implemented. Clearly defined conditions will ensure proper interpretation and correct implementation for compliance purposes. / M (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

An independent industry of Environmental Control Officers (ECOs) is active on various construction sites across South Africa. It forms part of a global network of verifiers, such as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and EIA follow-up verifiers. This network authenticates statements about and the implementation of sustainability commitments made during the planning phase of major construction projects. International studies show that the construction industry is experiencing many challenges to deliver sustainability commitments, including inadequate collaboration between role players, illdefined roles and responsibilities, and insufficient use of environmental governance approaches. On-site verifiers like ECOs may aid in restraining these challenges by bridging ineffective governance approaches, such as classic EIA with new governance approaches, for instance self-responsibility (e.g. Environmental Management Systems (EMSs)) and involvement of third parties. Moreover, an “independent from all” verification function may be vital in developing countries such as South Africa, where trust between the government, market and public is particularly fragile due to historical injustices. Interestingly, limited learning has been drawn and shared from this function’s real-world experience. There are also differing views on the role, independence and value of ECOs, due to roles, frequent interaction with persons responsible for delivering sustainability commitments, and collaboration with third parties being ill-defined. The overarching purpose of this study is to advance understanding of independent ECOs in major South African construction projects. Three lines of inquiry are followed. The first is to define what the role is, or ideally should be, of an ECO in the South African compliance monitoring and enforcement effort. The second is to identify what factors might influence the independence of verifiers. The third is to appraise how and to what extent independent EIA follow-up verifiers add value in major construction projects in the developing country context of South Africa. This study’s research assumptions are based on the real world of ECOs and uses a mixed method research approach to draw knowledge from the industry. The strategies of inquiry include a survey, interviews, and multiple case study evaluations. The methods for data collection include literature review, a self-administered survey questionnaire, semi-structured interviews, video material, observations of practice at case studies, and the collection of project documentation. The methods used for data analysis are the categorisation and measuring of opinions and statements of survey participants, the analysis of video material and project documentation, and the nominal categorisation and ordinal scaling of case study results. Three journal articles capture the essence of the research results and form part of the thesis report, as prescribed by the North-West University’s rules for doctoral theses in article format. All three articles were peer-reviewed and published in journals aimed at international audiences. Article 1 of the thesis highlights that an industry of ECOs fulfils numerous roles at various construction sites across South Africa. The results identify the importance of ECOs functioning independently of all role-players, but warn that obsessing about independence may compromise the ability of ECOs to fulfil their roles. The results also show that industry is in need of competence and the regulation thereof, as well as support from all role players. By drawing from the research results, the thesis defines an ECO. Article 2 of the thesis reiterates that independence is central to internationally acclaimed verification fields and important to ensure the credibility of EIA. The study identifies 18 factors that might influence the independence of EIA follow-up verifiers and divides the factors into five categories: financial, commercial, professional, personal, and other. By identifying and sharing these factors, this thesis aids in anticipating and avoiding potential conflict of interest between environmental role players. Article 3 strengthens the continuum between environmental governance approaches by conceptualising a framework for appraising the value of independent EIA follow-up verifiers. The framework provides for inter-linking principles and objectives of sustainability to the performance areas of EIA, EIA follow-up and the EMS. The appraisal results indicate that independent verifiers add most value when they are involved in screening, checking compliance, influencing decisions, community engagement, and integrating environmental governance approaches. The study confirms the benefits of adaptable, proactive, experienced, and independent EIA follow-up verifiers, such as ECOs, on major South African construction projects. / PhD (Geography and Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

This thesis aims to establish analytical frameworks to map urban growth patterns with spaceborne remote sensing data and to evaluate environmental impacts through Landscape Metrics and Ecosystem Services. Urbanization patterns at regional scale were evaluated in China's largest urban agglomerations and at metropolitan scale in Shanghai, Stockholm and Beijing using medium resolution optical satellite data. High-resolution data was used to investigate changes in Shanghai’s urban core. The images were co-registered and mosaicked. Tasseled Cap transformations and texture features were used to increase class separabilities prior to pixel-based Random Forest and SVM classifications. Urban land cover in Shanghai and Beijing were derived through object-based SVM classification in KTH-SEG. After post-classification refinements, urbanization indices, Ecosystem Services and Landscape Metrics were used to quantify and characterize environmental impact. Urban growth was observed in all studies. China's urban agglomerations showed most prominent urbanization trends. Stockholm’s urban extent increased only little with minor environmental implications. On a regional/metropolitan scale, urban expansion progressed predominately at the expense of agriculture. Investigating urbanization patterns at higher detail revealed trends that counteracted negative urbanization effects in Shanghai's core and Beijing's urban-rural fringe. Beijing's growth resulted in Ecosystem Services losses through landscape structural changes, i.e. service area decreases, edge contamination or fragmentation. Methodological frameworks to characterize urbanization trends at different scales based on remotely sensed data were developed. For detailed urban analyses high-resolution data are recommended whereas medium-resolution data at metropolitan/regional scales is suggested. The Ecosystem Service concept was extended with Landscape Metrics to create a more differentiated picture of urbanization effects.​ / <p>QC 20160205</p>

Forest biomass burned for energy purposes does not need to be accounted for under IPCC rules. This has led to a number of countries considering tree stump harvesting as a source of forest biomass. However there are concerns that the soil disturbance that this may entail could have adverse environmental effects, including the loss of sequestered carbon from the soil. Published results differ in the degree and nature of stump harvesting soil disturbance. Two widely used measures employed in stump harvesting soil disturbance studies are visual assessment of disturbance extent and bulk density measures of the nature of disturbance. Each of these has limitations. This study seeks to extend the insight into both the nature and extent of soil disturbance resulting from stump harvesting by the application of additional techniques. In this way the physical effects of soil disturbance by stump harvesting will be compared with those of other forestry practices. To overcome the two-dimensional and subjective nature of visual assessment, a radiometric approach was adopted, utilising residual Chernobyl 137Cs fallout to determine the degree of soil mixing. To complement bulk density measurements, micromorphological analyses of soil thin sections taken from field samples were carried out to investigate the impact of compressive force on pore space. Low-cost tracer devices were deployed in the soil around stumps prior to extraction to permit the monitoring of the lateral movement of soil during stump extraction. These methods were applied to a stump harvesting operation carried out under current UK guidance at a UPM Tilhill managed site in south west Scotland. The radiometric method demonstrated its capacity to recognise differing degrees of soil disturbance in an operational forest environment, including some disturbance that might escape visual assessment. Analysis of soil thin sections provided the evidence of a significant increase in the pore capacity of disturbed soil. The soil movement tracers developed for this project provided the capability to examine the various trajectories of soil during stump extraction as well as dimensioning the resulting disturbance crater. The study indicated that under current UK management and operational practice, stump harvesting generated a higher level of soil disturbance compared to ground preparation by trench mounding, with an estimated 1260 m3 ha-1 of soil disturbed by stump harvesting compared to 250 m3 ha-1 from trench mounding. Stump harvesting was found to generate a net reduction in soil bulk density in the affected areas, contrary to the findings of some other studies. This outcome is dependent on adhering to particular site management and operational procedures. The practice of raking over the site following stump harvesting is estimated to add a further 10% to the volume of soil disturbed, and is a questionable activity under soil sustainability guidance. This work was part-funded and actively supported by the UK Forestry Commission and UPM Tilhill.

Renewable energies, and among them solar photovoltaics, are becoming more important in the last years due to the lack of fossil fuels and the environmental impact of them. PV installed capacity is increasing over and over in some countries and the prices of the installation are decreasing while the prices of the electricity are predicted to increase. Electricity use in buildings account for an important part of all electricity use in the world. This two facts make the PV installation in the rooftops of buildings a good opportunity to reduce the purchase of electricity from the grid.   The aim of the thesis is to analyze the profitability and the environmental impact (when using a hot water accumulator) of a PV system with different storage systems placed in the rooftop of two dwellings located in Gävle (Sweden). The storage systems can be either batteries or hot water accumulators. The purpose of the storage system is to increase the self-consumption rate of the PV system and to save the highest amount of money possible. It is also studied the difference of installing PbA and Li-ion batteries, and the reliability of the data used in the simulation of the alternative systems with the help of the software PVsyst.   Results show that the profitability of the proposed three alternative PV systems with storage is not higher than the PV system without storage. The reason for this has been found in the low prices of electricity and DH nowadays. Moreover, the impact of decreasing the heating demand from DH network does not benefit the environment, because the electricity has to be produced in power plants that produce more pollutants. It can be said also that the data obtained in PVsyst has been determined reliable and that the difference between the two types of batteries is not conclusive.   It can be concluded that if the cost of the PV systems or the batteries would decrease, the profitability will be higher. Furthermore, the increase in the price of electricity, DH or governmental subsidies would improve the results.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: See item for abstract / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Sien item vir opsomming