The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of writing strategies in promoting 13-15 years old Chinese ESL learners’ writing ability. Two writing strategies I selected in this study are Julia's (in James 2000) 8-step writing strategy and Englert's (1991) POWER strategy. Both writing strategies are designed based on Hayes and Flower's (1989) theory of writing process but with different steps in guiding writing. According to their different functions, these two strategies can stand for two main kinds of writing strategies at present. The study included two questionnaires and two writing tests designed for fifteen Chinese students who were chosen randomly in grade 3 of a middle school. Through the analysis of these questionnaires, the students’ attitude to writing and the functions of writing strategies were collected in order to keep the two tests reliable and authentic. And then, the pre-test was used to evaluate these students' primary level of English writing; in the post-test, these students were divided into three groups: the first two groups received two writing strategies and the last one was no strategy group. The comparison of their writing results between the two tests were analysed. Both writing strategies groups in the post-test showed the effectiveness of the given writing strategies .   Two writing strategies were chosen for this study according to the research objects' English level and cognitive capability. And the fifteen research objects chosen in Chinese middle school represent the average level of Chinese ESL learners in writing. The analysis of their results in both tests focused on the content of their writings and writing elements, such as, vocabulary, grammar, organization. In the qualitative research of the study, the 8-step writing strategy is shown to be the more effective one for 13-15 years old Chinese ESL learners.

Many students in an allied health program at a Middle Eastern Arab university were experiencing difficulties with courses taught in English, resulting in poor academic achievement, low grade point averages, a high failure rate amongst its first year students, and an adverse impact upon a future skilled and educated work force for the region. Tinto's theory of institutional action for students' success served as the conceptual framework for the inquiry that used a qualitative explanatory case study method to examine the experiences of those students who were facing difficulties with their studies. To address questions about why students were failing and leaving the school and how the institution might remedy this educational problem, the study employed initial and follow-up interviews and reviews of academic records and portfolios of 6 currently enrolled or recently graduated students over age 21, who volunteered to participate. Content and thematic analysis of the collected qualitative data produced findings indicative of lack of college readiness among students and gaps in institutional practices such as remedial methods for the unprepared students. Based on the study findings, a policy recommendation for improving the educational practices was introduced to support building a better educational environment at the school. The positive social change implications of this study are not only limited to establishing programs to support the students' success and improve retention rates at the institution but also may include the establishment of more effective approaches to the reform measures of the educational system in the country.

Many students in an allied health program at a Middle Eastern Arab university were experiencing difficulties with courses taught in English, resulting in poor academic achievement, low grade point averages, a high failure rate amongst its first year students, and an adverse impact upon a future skilled and educated work force for the region. Tinto's theory of institutional action for students' success served as the conceptual framework for the inquiry that used a qualitative explanatory case study method to examine the experiences of those students who were facing difficulties with their studies. To address questions about why students were failing and leaving the school and how the institution might remedy this educational problem, the study employed initial and follow-up interviews and reviews of academic records and portfolios of 6 currently enrolled or recently graduated students over age 21, who volunteered to participate. Content and thematic analysis of the collected qualitative data produced findings indicative of lack of college readiness among students and gaps in institutional practices such as remedial methods for the unprepared students. Based on the study findings, a policy recommendation for improving the educational practices was introduced to support building a better educational environment at the school. The positive social change implications of this study are not only limited to establishing programs to support the students' success and improve retention rates at the institution but also may include the establishment of more effective approaches to the reform measures of the educational system in the country.

The three studies reported in this thesis investigated the contributing factors of L2 writing among adult ESL learners in the academic setting. The major purpose of this research was to explore the relationship between L2 proficiency, writing strategies, writing attitude, writing errors and L2 writing performance. This thesis aimed to provide insights for the contributing factors that are predictive of L2 writing performance in adult ESL learners, studying in English and non-English dominant settings. Study 1 (reported in Chapter 3) focused on determining the appropriate measures for investigating the individual factors of writing performance; particularly learners’ writing strategies, learners’ second language proficiency, first language (L1) interference and their relation to writing performance. Thirty-one intermediate students of L2 served as participants. A measure of vocabulary size and a writing strategy questionnaire were administered to the students. Findings in this study indicated that most of the participants’ planning strategies were limited to having a mental or written plan whereas over half of the respondents reported that they always start with an introduction and were more likely to stop drafting after a few sentences. In terms of drafting strategies, it was found that most respondents reread what they had written to get ideas on how to continue but did not go back to their outline to make changes in it. With regard to L1 use, a majority of participants do not write bits of text in their native language. Nevertheless, quite a number of participants indicated that they would write in their L1 if they don’t know a word in English. Findings in this study also suggested that participants’ biggest concerns were related to grammar and vocabulary, which resulted in them making surface level changes and checking. An overall analysis of participants’ writing output and responses from the questionnaire also provided important insights to the improvement of the measures. The revision process included rewording and rephrasing ambiguous items, removing irrelevant items from the questionnaire and restructuring the writing task for the next study. In Study 2 (presented in Chapter 4), a follow-up study was conducted to examine L2 writers’ proficiency level, writing attitude, writing errors and writing strategies in an English-dominant setting. Nine research questions were designed to guide the study framework and gather specific data regarding the research aims. A writing measure, vocabulary tests and a questionnaire were administered to the students. Findings from Study 2 indicated that L2 proficiency, particularly vocabulary size, was related to writing performance. In addition, it was also discovered that L2 writers who performed poorly were prone to performing writing strategies related to surface level checking. Therefore, it was concluded that linguistic barriers in L2 affect both writing performance and students’ ability in applying the effective strategies in writing. Apart from that, Study 2 also found that the use of L1 and translation into L2 was associated with lower writing performance. Additionally, Study 2 found that pronoun, word and sentence errors were the most prevalent errors among ESL students. A possible reason for this is because L2 students need to work with two languages while writing, mainly the grammar rules in English which are not found in their L1 as well as their own native language. Thus, L2 students face the challenge of working out English grammar rules while writing. Overall, findings in this study suggest that prevalent writing errors in English may be a sign of L1 interference and that as the use of L1 increases, writing performance decreases. In Study 3 (reported in Chapter 5), the role of proficiency level, writing attitude, writing errors and writing strategies was explored by measuring the relationship between writing attitude scores, errors in writing, strategy use and essay scores. Additionally, the role of L2 proficiency in writing performance was also investigated by assessing the relationship between vocabulary size scores, writing errors and writing performance. Findings from Study 3 revealed unexpected findings with regard to the relationship between L1 use and writing performance among the three sample groups. L1 use was found to be correlated with writing performance for Group A but not Groups B and C. It was argued that L2 writers of different L2 proficiency level and academic experience may have different orientations of L1 use. Further work on the impact of L1 use on L2 writing will be needed in order to provide insights into this area. With regard to writing errors, a relationship between errors and writing performance was reported. It was found that subject verb agreement error appeared to be a common factor for the three groups in the study that was related to writing performance. In addition, errors were also significantly correlated with L2 proficiency, suggesting that as L2 proficiency increased, errors decreased. Overall, Study 3 argues for the importance of developing and enhancing learners’ L2 proficiency to reduce errors and improve learners’ writing performance. Additionally, Study 3 also argues for the need to emphasize effective writing strategies in the ESL writing classroom.

This study investigated the production of the English voiceless bilabial stop /p/ in three word positions (initial, medial, and final). By a group of 20 male and female ESL Saudi Arabian learners in the United States. The stimulus of this work was a list of 20 English words with an equal number of words for the three word positions initial, medial, and final. By measuring the Voice Onset Time in word initial and the duration of the release of the target phoneme /p/ in word medial and final positions this study identified several types of error in the participants’ utterances, including substitution of /p/ with /b/, approximation, and frication. The position of /p/ in words had a significant effect on the accuracy of pronunciation as the position that yielded the highest level of accuracy was the final position. The other two positions, initial and medial, showed a significantly higher number of production errors than word- final position.

The present study examined the perception of English tense-lax vowel pairs by adult Saudi English as a second language (ESL) learners. More specifically, it looked at the effect of experience and length of exposure to the target language on the perception of these vowels. Thirty-eight male Saudi participants were recruited for the purpose of this study and were divided into two groups based on their level of proficiency and length of residence in the US, referred to as the experienced group and the inexperienced group, respectively. The research instrument contained four tense-lax vowel pairs, including /i/-/ɪ/, /e/-/ɛ/, /u/-/ʊ/, and /o/-/ɔ/. In order to control for the effect of the environment, all of the vowels were embedded in /hVd/ contexts as illustrated by the following examples: heed (/i/), hid (/ɪ/), hayed (/e/), head (/ɛ/), hawed (/ɔ/), hoed (/o/), hood (/ʊ/), and who'd (/u/). Native-speaker recordings of each vowel token were used to test participants’ perception accuracy. The recordings included both male and female voices. According to the statistics provided by the t-tests, there were significant differences in the perception of five out of the eight vowels that were examined in this study. In all five cases, the experienced group had a significantly better perception accuracy. The vowel that showed the highest magnitude of difference between the experienced and inexperienced students was the tense mid front vowel /e/ with an effect size of 1.5. It was followed by the lax high back vowel /ʊ/ with an effect size of 1.08. The third in magnitude of difference was the lax mid front vowel /ɛ/ (effect size = 1.02), followed by the lax mid back vowel /ɔ/ (effect size = 0.79), and finally the tense mid back vowel /o/ (effect size = 0.72). On the other hand, vowels that did not show significant differences between the two groups were the tense and lax high front vowels /i/ and /ɪ/ and the tense high back vowel /u/. However, although the experienced group showed a significantly higher level of perception accuracy in five out of the eight tense-lax vowel contrasts, the participants in this group reached the 80% accuracy level with only two vowels: /i/ and /e/. On the other hand, the inexperienced group did not show mastery of any of the eight vowels as their perception accuracy scores were below 80%. In terms of related theories, some of the results supported the Perceptual Assimilation Model (Best, 1994), the Speech Learning Model (Flege, 1995), and the Markedness Differential Hypothesis (Eckman, 1977), whereas other findings provided contradictory evidence. Overall, this study concluded that experience and exposure had a positive effect on Saudi ESL speakers’ perceptions of the tense-lax vowel contrasts in English. Even though this effect was not the same for all vowel contrasts, it carried the implication that perception accuracy can be facilitated through systematic training and practice.

The growing field of mobile learning (m-learning) research concerning the use and effectiveness of mobile assisted language learning (MALL) in second and foreign language (L2) education reflects the possibilities of smart mobile technological devices to facilitate students’ control over their own learning. This research aims to find the pedagogical affordances of mobile learning in combination with Web 2.0 tools with a particular focus on the use of smartphone and Facebook as tools to enhance teaching and learning of English for English as a Second Language learners. Using Design Based Research (DBR) as an approach to conduct this study, the initial design framework was developed from the literature and the exploratory phase. It was tested and developed through a series of iterations and the impacts of each iteration were evaluated using interviews and qualitative data analysis. 37 participants were involved in this study; 12 in the Exploratory Study, 17 in Iteration 1 and 8 in Iteration 2. One of the most important findings reported in the first iteration is the impact of a sense of social obligation whereby participants felt under pressure from their peers to post and to participate. This social obligation effect can have both positive and negative consequences for learning and was further explored in the second iteration. Based on the findings from both iterations, this study suggested a design framework to be used by future research that explored ways in which pedagogical designs for m-learning with social networking can take this social obligation effect into account in order to avoid its negative consequences and make best use of its positive consequences.

The concept of learner autonomy (LA) in second/foreign language education has been the central focus for many researchers (Benson, 2007, 2011, 2013; Holec, 1981; Gu & Nguyen, 2013; Little, 2007, 2009 and others) and has become a part of mainstream practice of language education in some educational contexts; however, there is still a high interest in researching language learner autonomy and ways to foster it. Partially, this renewed interest is due to advances in technology and pedagogy such as self-access centers, distance learning, blended learning and Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) in general and changes in educational policies (Benson 2011, 2013). Modern language learners are exposed to various choices in their language education such as numerous learning modes and a variety of language learning resources. However, this change means that learners must be capable of making informed decisions about their language education and taking some control over it in order to become successful and maximize their learning experience. There are examples of autonomous learning programs which place autonomy at the center, worldwide. Recently, the Center of English as a Second Language (CESL) at the University of Arizona (UA) created and implemented a new educational practice, Program for Intentional Learning (PIL). The goal of this program is to foster LA as well as equip CESL students with knowledge, skills, tools, and resources to be successful in both language learning and their future American college education. PIL is a hybrid program in terms of combining different approaches to fostering LA: resource-based, technology-based, curriculum-based, learner-based, and teacher-based (Benson, 2011).Responding to Benson's (2011) and Nguyen's (2012) call for more rigor in research on LA and educational interventions to promote LA, this dissertation follows the guidelines proposed by Nguyen (2012): a) having a clear operationalized definition of LA, (b) implementing both quantitative and qualitative research methods, and (c) piloting and validating tools. This dissertation examines the effectiveness of the PIL program in terms of its capacity to foster LA and to help CESL students to become more successful in learning English. The evaluation of the program was conducted as a multiple-case study of four participants with a mixed-method research design. The present study draws upon a main survey which measures a degree of LA as pre- and post-test, interviews with case study participants and their instructors, learning diary, and action plan comparison. Even though the comparison of pre- and post-survey scores revealed that only two case study participants had a significant change towards greater LA, all four participants reported changes in their learning behaviors. These changes point to a higher degree of LA, and all participants shared a positive overall evaluation of the PIL workshops. The study suggests that this type of educational intervention to promote LA can be effective, especially in developing metacognitive knowledge and skills, increasing participants' motivation and changing their attitude towards language learning and their teachers.

According to the Constitution of South Africa (1996), as well as the Schools Act of South Africa (1996), everyone has the right to education in the language of their choice. The advantage of being educated in one’s home language is a well-known and accepted as a demonstrated fact (Oosthuizen, Rossouw & De Wet, 2004:22). Unfortunately, Oosthuizen et al. (2004:22) remark that the biggest problem in education today, is that home language education cannot be given to everyone in South Africa. As a result many parents choose English as the Language of Learning and Teaching (LOLT) for their children, since they believe English is the language of empowerment. Although English Second Language (ESL) learners pose a challenge to educators in the class, they still have a right to quality education. Therefore, thorough planning is essential to ensure that these learners are taught according to their needs. The primary aim of this research study was to determine if primary school educators designed their lesson planning to accommodate ESL learners with a limited English proficiency. The primary aim could only be determined if the following sub-aims were successfully analysed: *To determine through a literature investigation which specific language barriers ESL learners, with limited English language proficiency, experience during a lesson. *To determine through a literature investigation why lesson planning is important; *To determine to what extent educators accommodate language barriers to learning of ESL learners, with a limited English language proficiency, in their lesson plans. *To determine how educators reflect on their lesson plan, in order to determine whether ESL learners, with limited English language proficiency, coped with the lesson. *To establish which modifications, if any, educators make after reflection to accommodate ESL learners with limited English language proficiency in the follow lesson planning? A Qualitative research method was followed during the study. Data was collected for the research study by doing a document analysis and semi-structured interviews with primary school educators who are currently in the teaching profession and have ESL learners in their class. A convenience sample was used, where the nearest parallel medium school was chosen with participants readily available. The following findings emerged from the study: According to the literature study, the most common specific language barriers which ESL learners with limited English proficiency experience in the classroom are: *Experience it difficult to express themselves in English; *Educators disparity in language between learners and educators; *a limited English vocabulary; and *struggling with comprehension of English. Findings of the empirical study showed that the participants do not plan for accommodations for ESL learners who may experience barriers to learning. They indicated that since English is the LOLT of the school and because they feel that the learners should be proficient in the language they do not need to plan for possible misunderstandings or communication problems that could occur because of a language barrier. However, they did acknowledge that a limited vocabulary and ways of expression can cause communication problems. / MEd, Learner Support, North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2012

The main focus of this dissertation is to investigate to what extent Japanese English-as-an-additional-language (EAL) learners have mastered default grapheme-phoneme correspondence (GPC) patterns of North American English vowels. The underlying motivation of this research comes from my observation that many mispronunciations of English vowels by Japanese EAL learners in formal learning settings are caused by their misinterpretation of English spellings rather than by phonological factors. Traditionally, Japanese speakers’ mispronunciations of English vowels have been attributed to a phonological factor that there is a mismatch of vowel inventories between English and Japanese. However, Nogita and Lin (2016) found that when vowel length and diphthongization are taken into consideration, native Japanese speakers are able to produce all the 13 North American English vowels although not necessarily in a native-like manner. This seems to suggest that other factors than the vowel inventory difference are responsible for the Japanese speakers EAL pronunciation errors. One such factor can be that Japanese EAL learners have not grasped the English GPC patterns and their misinterpretation of the spellings causes their pronunciation errors. To see if a GPC problem really plays a role, this dissertation examines how Japanese EAL learners map all the 13 North American English vowels with English vowel graphemes. In order to examine Japanese EAL learners’ knowledge of English vowel GPC, I conducted both reading and spelling tasks with English-like one-syllable nonsense words. In the reading task (e.g., reading aloud <snad>, <staw>, <stoe>, <nube>, etc.), the results showed that the Japanese EAL participants read vowel letters differently from native English speaking participants 40.1% of the time. In the spelling task (e.g., listening and spelling out native utterances of such syllables as [sneɪ], [zɑ:d], [gaʊ], [fʌd], etc.), the results showed that the Japanese EAL participants spelled out vowel sounds differently from native English speaking participants 60.0% of the time. These results suggest that the Japanese EAL participants’ English vowel grapheme-phoneme mapping patterns were quite different from those of the native English-speaking participants. In more details, the results showed that some correspondences were performed very well in both grapheme-to-phoneme and phoneme-to-grapheme directions presumably because of the similarities between the English GPC and the standardized Japanese romanization GPC: specifically, <e>-[ɛ] (in a closed syllable) and <oi, oy>-[ɔɪ]. In contrast, some correspondences were performed very poorly in both directions presumably in part because of the differences between the English GPC and the standardized Japanese romanization: specifically, <aw, au>-[ɑ:], <ow, ou>-[aʊ], <uh#>-[ʌ#] (# = word-final), <i>-[ɪ], and to a lesser extent <o>-[ɑ:] (in a closed syllable), and <o#, oe#, oh#>-[oʊ]. There were also correspondences that were performed very well only in the grapheme-to-phoneme direction but not in the other direction: specifically, word-medial <ee>-to-[i:] and <a_e>-to-[eɪ]. To a lesser extent, the <u>-to-[ʌ] conversion was also much less problematic than the [ʌ]-to-<u> conversion, although the <u>-[ʌ] correspondence was performed relatively poorly overall. Finally, none of the correspondences were performed very well only in the phoneme-to-grapheme direction but not in the other direction, but there were correspondences that showed this tendency. For example, the [æ: (æə)]-to-<a> conversion was much less problematic than the <a>-to-[æ: (æə)] conversion. Pedagogically, these results seem to suggest that Japanese EAL learners can benefit from being taught English default GPC patterns in order for them to improve on their graphophonic skills. / Graduate / 2017-08-23 / 0290 / 0279 / akitsugu@uvic.ca