South Africa depends largely on afforestation programs for its timber supplies due to the great demands for fiber and wood products. This has brought discomfort to other water users who have advocated that the effects of afforestation on water resources are detrimental to the country as a whole since South Africa is known as a water scarce country. This study has undertaken to integrate a process-based model and remote sensing data to estimate water use and productivity of Eucalyptus grandis in the Zululand areas of South Africa. The remote sensing techniques and recently developed "process based model" that is 3PG-S were used to estimate water use and productivity of Eucalyptus grandis, an economically important plantation species grown in the summer rainfall areas of South Africa. The study utilized monthly Landsat Thematic Mapper datasets and climatic data as inputs into the 3PG-S model, determined the Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Specific Leaf Area (SLA) through direct (destructive sampling) and indirect measurements (LiCor- 2000) and assessed the relationships between various vegetation indices (VI's) using correlation and regression analyses. The results suggest that all the indices, except the ratio VI, correlated significantly with LiCor-determined and destructively measured LAI values with both normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and Ratio Vegetation Index (RVI) (r=0.86, p / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritburg, 2007.

Ineffective biological control of the Eucalyptus pest Paropsis charybdis Stål (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Paropsini) in cold areas of New Zealand was believed to be caused a climatic mismatch of the egg parasitoid Enoggera nassaui Girault (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Two Tasmanian strains of the parasitoid were introduced to test climate-matching theory in 2000, with approximately 7000 wasps released. Establishment of the Florentine Valley strain was detected in 2002 using the Mitochondrial (mtDNA) gene Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) as a strain specific marker. The hyperparasitoid Baeoanusia albifunicle Girault (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) and primary parasitoid Neopolycystus insectifurax Girault (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) were detected for the first time in New Zealand.
As paropsines have proven highly invasive internationally, a risk assessment of the paropsine threat to New Zealand was undertaken by evaluating the host range of E. nassaui and a reproductive assessment of 23 paropsine species in the genera Dicranosterna Motschulsky, Chrysophtharta Weise, Paropsis Olivier, Paropsisterna Motschulsky and Trachymela Weise. Enoggera nassaui proved polyphagous, but bioassay results proved that Paropsis species were significantly more susceptible to the egg parasitoid than Chrysophtharta species. Resistance within Chrysophtharta was attributed to spine-like chorion modifications. A COI derived Chrysophtharta phylogeny divided the genus into two distinct groupings, which was supported by chorion morphology.
Paropsine reproductive output was tested for key parameters indicating pest potential. Pest species displayed fecundity exceeding 600 eggs at an oviposition rate above 10 eggs per day⁻¹. Several non-pest species were identified as potential pests based on these parameters. The Chrysophtharta phylogeny suggested a moderate relationship between genetic relatedness and reproductive output. The Acacia defoliating paropsine Dicranosterna semipunctata (Chapuis) was evaluated for its susceptibility to E. nassaui and reproductive output. Egg parasitism occurring in bioassay did not translate into biological suppression following a specifically targeted release of E. nassaui, and the fecundity and oviposition rates fell below the thresholds predicted for a pest paropsine species.
Despite establishment of Tasmanian E. nassaui, hyperparasitism has now rendered this control agent ineffective in New Zealand. Neopolycystus insectifurax offers the best hope for future biological control of paropsine species in New Zealand.

This thesis explores issues relating to the application of physiological-process models (???process models???) of forest growth to mixed species, mixed age forests, in particular the coastal blackbutt forests of New South Wales. Using a dataset provided by State Forests of New South Wales (Carter 1994 unpubl.) a numeric description of the forest was developed and stand-level parameters of interest were derived, in particular the plot by plot stemwood volume growth from 1975 to 1999. The amounts of harvested volume, volume that died and volume that grew into the measurement population were identified separately, and several different means of accounting for volume change over time were investigated. A method for quantifying the impact of harvesting and other silvicultural practices on the growth of the forest was developed and programs were written to convert the stand-level summary of the harvest impact into a semi-random selection of trees that would be ???harvested??? from the database under the set of silvicultural assumptions (Dore et al. 1999). A number of process models were investigated and reviewed before selecting one particular model, SUSTAIN (Dewar 1997) for adaption to these forests. This model is a relatively simple process model with a small number of input parameters. The model was adapted so that it could be used to compare the SUSTAIN estimate of growth with the growth of an individual stand of trees in the Kendall Forest Management Area, between Wauchope and Taree on the mid-north coast of NSW. To improve the accuracy of the prediction of growth by SUSTAIN, a method of re-setting the state of the stand to the actual condition at the time of remeasurement was developed. In addition, the SUSTAIN model was extended to enable two separate levels of canopy to be described and grown separately. Ultimately the model was only partially successful in mirroring the growth predicted by the empirical data. Its partial success is attributed primarily to the difficulties associated with correctly determining the allocation parameters used by the model to assign net photosynthate to the roots, foliage and stemwood. The nature of the change in allocation parameters when the forest stand is disturbed by harvest or fire needs further investigation.

vi, 207 leaves : graphs, tables, photos ; 30 cm / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Entomology, 1980

This thesis examines the growth ring structure of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnhardt and investigates links between ring features and the climatic conditions under which growth took place. Samples of E. camaldulensis from the Barmah Forest (near the River Murray in northern Victoria) were used in the study. E. camaldulensis growth is linked to periodic flooding, and the Barmah Forest contains sites that are frequently flooded. Wood samples were obtained from sites subject to different average flooding frequencies. Trees used in the study grew out of natural regeneration in the 1920’s and 1930’s and from regeneration trials in the early 1960’s. Initial investigation of E. camaldulensis samples revealed ring-like features that were able to be traced on samples by eye. Microscopic investigation showed that there existed considerable variations in the properties of individual rings at different positions on the samples, and that the boundaries between rings were often indistinct.

Title page, table of contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University of Adelaide Library. / The proliferation of box mistletoe Amyema miquelii in eucalypt woodlands of south-eastern Australia may have resulted from the suppression of canopy fires, a reduction in herbivory by possums, and through environmental change, an improvement in conditions for mistletoe dispersal and establishment. In the Mount Lofty Ranges (MLR), South Australia, box mistletoe is often seen in high numbers in pink gum Eucalyptus fasciculosa woodlands. The following dissertation investigated box mistletoe dispersal and establishment by Mistletoebirds Dicaeum hirundinaceum in a pink gum woodland. The broad aims of the study were to advance our theoretical knowledge of mistletoe dispersal ecology, to understand why pink gum woodlands are more susceptible to mistletoe infection, and to increase the amount of ecological information available to land managers. A survey of box mistletoe and its Eucalyptus hosts in reserves of the MLR region revealed that almost a third of all pink gums were infected with box mistletoe. Individual pink gums with less foliage cover surrounding their canopy were more likely to host box mistletoe, suggesting canopy access for Mistletoebirds may influence the susceptibility of pink gums to mistletoe infection. Woodland type was more influential than fragmentation and edge effects in determining mistletoe presence, indicating a variation in host specificity across Eucalyptus species. The results of this survey indicated that further examination was required on Mistletoebird behaviour and mistletoe establishment success. Two aspects of Mistletoe bird ecology were examined: the influence of their movement patterns on the spatial dynamics of mistletoe dispersal, and their foraging behaviour. Mistletoebirds had home ranges of around 20 ha, and used small core areas (1 ha) of high mistletoe infestation more frequently than areas with lower mistletoe abundance. Modelling of mistletoe seed shadows indicated that the majority of mistletoe seeds (approx. 70%) would be deposited within 100 m of a parent plant. Consistent with this, seed rain modelling showed that mistletoe seed rain was aggregated, with birds dispersing large amounts of seed (> 66 000/ ha) in areas with higher mistletoe infestation levels. This indicated that the movements of mistletoe dispersers promote mistletoe aggregation not only at the scale of an individual tree, but also at a landscape scale. From a management perspective, the results indicated that the removal of mistletoes from single trees may have only short-term results, as reinfection from neighbouring host trees is likely. The attractiveness of pink gums to Mistletoebirds was a function of tree size, mistletoe crop size and tree access. Mistletoebirds preferred to forage in taller trees with a larger mistletoe crop size and which had greater canopy access, and Mistletoebirds most often alighted on dead pink gum when visiting a tree. The results support the notion that woodland dieback may improve conditions for mistletoe dispersal by allowing favourable habitat for Mistletoebirds, by increasing canopy access and by providing more perch sites. Dieback will also reduce mistletoe establishment, however, through a loss of suitable live host branches. The high frequency of box mistletoe infection in pink gum woodlands could also be explained by differences in establishment of box mistletoe between eucalypt species. A mistletoe establishment experiment demonstrated that establishment was significantly higher on pink gums than on E. porosa and E. camaldulensis, and that mistletoes established on pink gums were larger and had a greater number of leaves. The differences probably lay in underlying differences in host physical and chemical defences, and subsequent relative success of mistletoes to establish a functional haustorium. The dispersal syndrome of box mistletoe as described in this study is suitable and perhaps facilitated in the contemporary fragmented environment in a number of ways. These include an ability to concentrate their feeding and breeding activities in small areas of remnant vegetation, greater manoeuvrability between trees isolated by clearing, and easier access to the canopies and perch sites of individual trees in deteriorated woodlands. Priority research stemming from this study should include studies into the underlying causes of pink gum dieback, an experiment to test whether canopy die back directly results in more frequent visitation by Mistletoebirds, an examination of Mistletoebird movements in areas with low mistletoe abundance, and continued monitoring of mistletoe abundance and tree condition as established in this dissertation. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1285516 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2007

Title page, table of contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University of Adelaide Library. / The proliferation of box mistletoe Amyema miquelii in eucalypt woodlands of south-eastern Australia may have resulted from the suppression of canopy fires, a reduction in herbivory by possums, and through environmental change, an improvement in conditions for mistletoe dispersal and establishment. In the Mount Lofty Ranges (MLR), South Australia, box mistletoe is often seen in high numbers in pink gum Eucalyptus fasciculosa woodlands. The following dissertation investigated box mistletoe dispersal and establishment by Mistletoebirds Dicaeum hirundinaceum in a pink gum woodland. The broad aims of the study were to advance our theoretical knowledge of mistletoe dispersal ecology, to understand why pink gum woodlands are more susceptible to mistletoe infection, and to increase the amount of ecological information available to land managers. A survey of box mistletoe and its Eucalyptus hosts in reserves of the MLR region revealed that almost a third of all pink gums were infected with box mistletoe. Individual pink gums with less foliage cover surrounding their canopy were more likely to host box mistletoe, suggesting canopy access for Mistletoebirds may influence the susceptibility of pink gums to mistletoe infection. Woodland type was more influential than fragmentation and edge effects in determining mistletoe presence, indicating a variation in host specificity across Eucalyptus species. The results of this survey indicated that further examination was required on Mistletoebird behaviour and mistletoe establishment success. Two aspects of Mistletoe bird ecology were examined: the influence of their movement patterns on the spatial dynamics of mistletoe dispersal, and their foraging behaviour. Mistletoebirds had home ranges of around 20 ha, and used small core areas (1 ha) of high mistletoe infestation more frequently than areas with lower mistletoe abundance. Modelling of mistletoe seed shadows indicated that the majority of mistletoe seeds (approx. 70%) would be deposited within 100 m of a parent plant. Consistent with this, seed rain modelling showed that mistletoe seed rain was aggregated, with birds dispersing large amounts of seed (> 66 000/ ha) in areas with higher mistletoe infestation levels. This indicated that the movements of mistletoe dispersers promote mistletoe aggregation not only at the scale of an individual tree, but also at a landscape scale. From a management perspective, the results indicated that the removal of mistletoes from single trees may have only short-term results, as reinfection from neighbouring host trees is likely. The attractiveness of pink gums to Mistletoebirds was a function of tree size, mistletoe crop size and tree access. Mistletoebirds preferred to forage in taller trees with a larger mistletoe crop size and which had greater canopy access, and Mistletoebirds most often alighted on dead pink gum when visiting a tree. The results support the notion that woodland dieback may improve conditions for mistletoe dispersal by allowing favourable habitat for Mistletoebirds, by increasing canopy access and by providing more perch sites. Dieback will also reduce mistletoe establishment, however, through a loss of suitable live host branches. The high frequency of box mistletoe infection in pink gum woodlands could also be explained by differences in establishment of box mistletoe between eucalypt species. A mistletoe establishment experiment demonstrated that establishment was significantly higher on pink gums than on E. porosa and E. camaldulensis, and that mistletoes established on pink gums were larger and had a greater number of leaves. The differences probably lay in underlying differences in host physical and chemical defences, and subsequent relative success of mistletoes to establish a functional haustorium. The dispersal syndrome of box mistletoe as described in this study is suitable and perhaps facilitated in the contemporary fragmented environment in a number of ways. These include an ability to concentrate their feeding and breeding activities in small areas of remnant vegetation, greater manoeuvrability between trees isolated by clearing, and easier access to the canopies and perch sites of individual trees in deteriorated woodlands. Priority research stemming from this study should include studies into the underlying causes of pink gum dieback, an experiment to test whether canopy die back directly results in more frequent visitation by Mistletoebirds, an examination of Mistletoebird movements in areas with low mistletoe abundance, and continued monitoring of mistletoe abundance and tree condition as established in this dissertation. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1285516 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2007

As the Eucalyptus globulus plantation industry expands and matures in southwestern Australia (WA), the impact of disease within the plantation environment is predicted to increase. This thesis investigated the most abundant canker-causing pathogen associated with branch and stem cankers, Endothiella eucalypti the anamorph of Cryphonectria eucalypti. Endothiella eucalypti was widespread, although at low incidence, throughout the WA plantation estate and was frequently observed sporulating on the bark of healthy hosts in the absence of disease. Regions with a long (approximately 20 years) plantation history, such as Bunbury, had the highest incidence of this pathogen. A high degree of variability in pathogenicity, growth rate and colony morphology was observed between WA isolates of En. eucalypti. In the glasshouse, a significant variation in susceptibility of seven E. globulus provenances to En. eucalypti was observed. Although an interaction between the E. globulus provenance and En. eucalypti isolate was recorded, some provenances were generally more susceptible than others. In two 18-month-old plantations, the susceptibility of three provenances to En. eucalypti was significantly influenced by environmental conditions. Visual assessment of general tree health indicated that less healthy trees had smaller lesions than healthy trees. It is hypothesised that the selection of E. globulus provenances to suit site conditions in the future should decrease the risk of serious disease, especially on marginal sites. Endothiella eucalypti caused disease in intact stems of two-year-old E. globulus under glasshouse conditions. This suggests that En. eucalypti may not require a wound to infect in the field. Vegetative compatibility groupings between WA En. eucalypti isolates indicated a relatively high degree of genotypic diversity within the WA asexual population of En. eucalypti, whereas inter-simple sequence repeats PCR (ISSR-PCR) analysis indicated a lower level of genotypic diversity. Discrepancies between traditional and molecular techniques, such as ISSR-PCR, was attributed to the more specific gene-togene analysis afforded by molecular techniques. ISSR-PCR successfully distinguished variability within the En. eucalypti population and with the teleomorph, isolated in South Africa. It also separated Cryphonectria cubensis isolates from the C. eucalypti isolates. As copper is the micronutrient most limiting growth of E. globulus in WA, its role in the resistance of two E. globulus provenances was examined in a glasshouse trial. Lesion extension or defence responses of E. globulus to En. eucalypti did not differ between Cu-adequate and Cu-deficient plants. It is suggested that constitutive levels of host defence enzymes played a more important role in providing protection for the host against En. eucalypti than the external supply of copper. A reduction in the canopy volume of E. globulus within plantations due to insect herbivory or foliar pathogens, such as Mycosphaerella spp., has been reported to predispose the host to disease caused by non-aggressive canker-causing fungi. Under two separate glasshouse trials, conditions of 100% defoliation and 80% defoliation maintained over six weeks prior to inoculation, were required to significantly increase lesion extension caused by En. eucalypti in E. globulus stems. The ability of defoliated E. globulus to retain a degree of resistance to En. eucalypti was attributed to the rapid replacement of foliage and up-regulation of photosynthesis in remaining leaves. The carbohydrate reserves of the plant were depleted following defoliation and remained depressed regardless of the length of time the trees remained defoliated. In conclusion, the endophytic habit of En. eucalypti poses a threat to highly stressed trees, however it does not appear to be an immediate threat to WA plantation health. Although En. eucalypti has not yet been responsible for a major disease outbreak in WA, the impact of this disease on plantation-grown eucalypts elsewhere in Australia and worldwide serves as an indication of its potential to affect WA plantations.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Murdoch University, 2003. / Thesis submitted to the Division of Science and Engineering. "Supported by CRC for Sustainable Tourism and Dept of Conservation and Land Management (Western Australia)". Bibliography: leaves 334-355.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Soil Science, 1997? / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 134-148).