Notre objectif dans cette étude aura été de se rapprocher progressivement du comportement et des caractéristiques des polyéthylènes afin de décrire les mécanismes de formation des contraintes résiduelles lors du calibrage des tubes.<br/>Le modèle le plus simple, basé sur une loi de comportement liquide - solide élastique, a mis en évidence deux mécanismes de formation des contraintes résiduelles. Le premier est relié aux différences de température lors du refroidissement qui provoquent des différences de retrait dans l'épaisseur. Ceci met les couches extérieures du tube en compression et les couches intérieures en traction. Ce profil de contrainte fait se refermer le tube lorsqu'on le découpe suivant la génératrice<br/>Le second mécanisme est relié aux efforts extérieurs qui s'appliquent sur le tube. La dépression dans le calibreur maintient le tube contre la chambre de calibrage et l'empêche de se rétracter lors du refroidissement ce qui induit des contraintes de traction dans les couches solidifiées. En fait la dépression bloque le retrait thermique qui était à l'origine du premier mécanisme. Si la dépression est suffisante pour maintenir le tube jusqu'à la fin de la solidification le profil de contraintes résiduelles est nul. Les profils de contraintes intermédiaires sont obtenus par une évolution des conditions aux limites lors de la solidification, la dépression n'étant en faite pas suffisante pour maintenir le contact pendant toute la solidification.<br/>Le modèle élastique a également mis en avant l'influence des forces axiales et en particulier les forces de frottement entre le tube et la chambre de calibrage. En étirant le tube, elles tendent à diminuer son diamètre. La dépression bloque cette rétraction en plus du retrait thermique. Ceci accentue les contraintes de traction dans les couches extérieures jusqu'à inverser le profil des contraintes résiduelles. Le tube peut alors s'ouvrir lorsqu'on le découpe suivant la génératrice.<br/>Le modèle élastique est suffisant pour expliquer l'influence de la dépression sur le profil des contraintes résiduelles. Cependant les propriétés des matériaux que ce modèle peut prendre en compte restent assez éloignées de celui des polyéthylènes pendant le refroidissement.<br/>Le modèle viscoélastique que nous avons développé est original par rapport à la bibliographie dans le sens où la variation du volume spécifique et les propriétés mécanique lors de la transition fluide -- solide sont directement basés sur l'évolution du taux de cristallinité, paramètre du premier ordre sur le comportement physique du matériau.<br/>Le taux de cristallinité peut être obtenu dans le modèle soit par le modèle de cristallisation d'Ozawa soit en reprenant directement les résultats obtenus par DSC. Celui-ci est alors utilisé pour déterminer l'évolution du volume spécifique et permet de tenir de l'importante rétraction du matériau qui se produit lors de la cristallisation. L'influence du retrait du à la cristallisation doit cependant être nuancé car il se produit à des températures pour lesquelles la relaxation des contraintes n'est pas négligeable. Pour des matériaux semi-cristallins tel que les polyéthylènes, il est donc nécessaire d'utiliser un modèle viscoélastique pour pouvoir prendre en compte le retrait lors de la cristallisation.<br/>Afin de pouvoir appliquer les forces d'étirage et de frottement dès le début de la solidification, nous avons montré qu'il était nécessaire de tenir compte des contraintes dans les couches non solidifiées afin de charger progressivement les couches solidifiées. Le comportement viscoélastique des matériaux est pris en compte dans les états fluides et solide par des lois de Maxwell multimode. La répartition des contraintes prédit dans les couches fluides et solides par le modèle viscoélastique permet d'avoir une première information sur l'importance des propriétés mécaniques du matériau à l'état fluide. Les calculs permettent d'expliquer en partie l'orientation mesurée dans les couches extérieures lors de l'étude des polyéthylènes basse densité linéaire.<br/>Le modèle viscoélastique apporte peu de renseignements supplémentaires sur les mécanismes de formation des contraintes résiduelles finales mais il permet de les quantifier en utilisant des caractéristiques matériaux proches de celles des polyéthylènes lors du refroidissement.<br/>Une étude numérique confirme que le procédé de calibrage est relativement sensible à tous les paramètres du procédé et caractéristiques du matériau même si la dépression reste le paramètre de premier ordre.<br/>Finalement, les comparaisons entre les calculs et l'expérience montrent que nous sommes parvenus à borner la réalité en expliquant l'origine des contraintes résiduelles qui se forment lors du calibrage des tubes.<br/>

Twin Screw Rheo Extrusion (TSRE) is a novel semisolid extrusion process developed at BCAST for producing simple profiles such as rods and wires of light alloys directly from melts with refined microstructures and improved mechanical properties. The process represents a shortened manufacturing route with great savings in investment, energy consumption and operation space. Research was carried out to investigate the feasibility of processing magnesium and aluminium alloys, to obtain the operations for the optimized microstructures and mechanical properties of the final product and to understand the mechanisms governing the evolution of microstructures. Experiments were conducted using an AZ91D magnesium alloy and several aluminium alloys on two specially made twin screw rheo extrusion machines and a range of conditions were tested. Results showed that the TSRE process was feasible for the AZ91D magnesium alloy and aluminium alloys, although modifications were required for processing aluminium alloys as the twin screw material used was found to react with aluminium. Analysis revealed that the extruded samples of both alloys had a uniform fine microstructure in both transversel and longitudinal directions and liquid segregation was limited, due to the application of intensive shearing during slurry making and extrusion. Low extrusion temperature was found to refine the structure and suppress the formation of the eutectic. The eutectic was easily dissolved upon heat treatment resulting in reasonable mechanical properties. Numerical analysis on thermal management was carried out and the results showed that a steady state thermal profile with a temperature gradient between the slurry feeding point and extrusion die could be established, promoting nucleation and preventing the formed solid particles from extensive growth during extrusion, which was confirmed by microstructural observations.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of changes in maxillary incisor position on anterior tooth display (ATD) in adult (n = 21) and adolescent (n = 38) orthodontic patients. The effects of anterior-posterior, vertical, and angular changes of the maxillary central incisor position during orthodontic treatment were evaluated relative to changes in the amount of ATD measured from pretreatment (TI) and posttreatment (T2) lateral cephalometric radiographs of existing patient records.Results showed a significant relationship between starting ATD and ATD change during treatment for both adults (P = ,006) and adolescents (P

Master of Science / Food Science / Sajid Alavi / Validation studies on process equipment are an important step for effective pathogenic control during dry expanded pet food manufacturing. The preconditioner is used to hydrate, mix and pre-cook raw materials before extrusion of pet food. The High-Intensity-Preconditioner (HIP) was designed with two independently driven shafts, thus offering control of both shaft speed and rotational direction with potential for improving residence time and thus pathogen inactivation. Residence time distribution (RTD) of raw dog food mix was impacted by the HIP process parameters (average residence time varying between 104-178 s for dry experiment and 65-177 s with steam addition) depending on shaft speed and direction. In general, increase in shaft speed resulted in shorter residence time with the larger shaft having a greater impact than the smaller shaft. Rotational direction of shafts also had an effect on average residence time (a maximum difference of 37 s was noticed between treatments with different shaft directions and the same speed). The uniformity of residence time distribution (difference of 97-132 s between 15 and 85 percentiles of the cumulative RTD) also varied considerably with process conditions, with uniformity increasing with shaft speed.  Enterococcus faecium (ATCC® 8459™) was chosen as a surrogate for Salmonella for microbial inactivation studies on the HIP. Both HIP shaft speed (200 and 300 rpm) and process temperature (67-70°C and 89-91°C) impacted E.faecium survival. Lower shaft speed (corresponding to longer residence time) or higher temperature led to greater E.faecium inactivation. A 5 log CFU/g of E.faecium was reduced using selective agar (m-Enterococcus or mE agar) after treatment with high temperature, but approximately 3.5 log CFU/g of E.faecium reduced on non-selective agar (Brain Heart Infusion or BHI agar). Uneven heat distribution, inadequate residence time and system instability might have negatively affected the inactivation. Microbial inactivation, with E.faecium as surrogate, was also studied for the complete dry expanded pet food process using a pilot-scale single-screw extruder with a regular double shaft preconditioner. Meal was inoculated with E.faecium at 6 log CFU/g and processed. Preconditioner downspout temperature ranged from 89-94°C and extrusion die temperature was between 120-140°C. Complete inactivation was observed after extrusion.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Grain Science and Industry / Sajid Alavi / The feasibility of using a wheat flour mill to refine corn, sorghum and cowpea was studied. Milling of white sorghum grain resulted in decrease in fiber content from 1.89% to 0.38% and 0.45% in raw, finely milled and coarsely milled sorghum respectively. Similarly, there was a reduction in fat (3.17% to 1.75% and 0.51%) content from raw to fine and coarse milled fractions. Starch content increased from 61.85% in raw to 69.80% in fine and 72.30% in coarse fractions. Protein content was almost unchanged at about 7.40% in all the fractions. In de-hulling and milling of cowpeas, starch and protein content increased whereas fiber, fat and ash content decreased. There was a significant difference in expansion characteristics between whole and decorticated binary blends on account of different levels of inherent starch content. Sorghum cowpea (SC) blends had the highest specific mechanical energy (SME) range (285.74 – 361.52 kJ/kg), followed by corn soy (CS) (138.73 – 370.99 kJ/kg) and the least SME was found in sorghum soy (SS) blends (66.56 – 332.93 kJ/kg). SME was found to be positively correlated to starch content in the blends. SC blends had the most stable process followed by SSB and CSB in that order. The milling of expanded extrudates was found to be dependent on bulk density and low bulk density extrudates had bigger particle size and vice-versa. The water absorption index (WAI) for SC was 4.17 g/g to 5.97 g/g, SS ranged from 2.85 g/g to 5.91 g/g and CS ranged from 2.63 g/g to 5.40 g/g. Starch gelatinization ranged from 85.42 – 98.83% for SC, 90.70 – 96.27% for SS, and 72.57 – 95.49% for CS. The starch digestibility increased after extrusion and cooking but there was no significant change in protein digestibility. There was a significant reduction in anti-nutritional factors – phytic acid (26.06 – 44.03%), tannins (18.69 – 26.67%) and trypsin inhibitor (16.55 – 50.85%) after extrusion. Thus, the study showed that high protein blends with superior nutrition density needed for preparation of FBFs could be produced by using existing/traditional milling capabilities and extrusion process.

A produção de mantas de tecido não tecido (TNT) por processo de extrusão a partir do poli(tereftalato de etileno) (PET) reciclado é uma forma interessante de reciclagem de polímeros adotada pela indústria que consegue conciliar viabilidade econômica com benefícios ambientais. Entretanto, durante a etapa de extrusão, muito material é perdido devido a entupimentos do equipamento ou outros motivos que acarretam na geração de uma quantidade considerável de rejeitos que não podem ser reaproveitados no sistema, devido à depreciação de propriedades ocorridas no material durante o processamento, levando ao descarte deste material geralmente em aterros sanitários. Neste trabalho foi feito um estudo sobre a reciclagem de rejeitos de PET das linhas de produção de mantas de tecido não tecido (TNT), adotando aditivos do tipo extensores de cadeia, para recuperar as propriedades que haviam sofrido grande depreciação. A incorporação de extensores de cadeia do tipo anidridos, isocianatos e fosforados, por meio de extrusão reativa, proporcionou melhorias consideráveis nas propriedades químicas, mecânicas e reológicas do rejeito de PET como aumento de massa molar, aumento de iscosidade no fundido e resistência à tração, facilitando o processamento e favorecendo a utilização do rejeito em novas etapas de reciclagem mecânica. Para as indústrias, a possibilidade de converter custos relacionados às operações de descarte de rejeitos em lucros com a agregação de valor a estes rejeitos poliméricos é extremamente interessante. Da mesma forma, a diminuição do volume de materiais poliméricos depositados no meio ambiente significa menos poluição e menos contaminação a diversos ecossistemas, apoiando os esforços que estão sendo feitos para a preservação e redução de poluentes na natureza. / The production of nonwoven fabrics (NWF) by extrusion process from recycled poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) is an interesting way for polymer recycling used by industry which to allow conciliate economic viability with environmental benefits. However, during extrusion step, a fraction of material is lost due to equipment clogging or others factors, leading to production of considerable amount of wastes which can not reinserted in system, due to the depreciation of material properties that occurs during thermal-mechanical processing. These rejects are generally deposited in land wastes. In this work was carried out a study about recycling of PET wastes from NWF production lines, using additives of chain extender kind to recoup properties that had been highly depreciated. The incorporation of chain extenders of kind anhydride, isocyanate and phosphorous compounds by reactive extrusion improved considerably some chemical, mechanical and rheological properties of PET waste such as increase in molecular weight, melt viscosity and strain strength, easing the thermal-mechanical processing and making possible the use of PET waste in news steps of mechanical recycling. The possibility to convert expenditures with wastes discarding operations into profits due to the values aggregation on these polymeric wastes is very interesting for the industries. Then, the decrease of amount of polymeric materials deposited in natural environment signifies less contamination to several ecosystems, supporting the works that have been realized to decrease pollutants and to preserve the nature.

O presente trabalho trata da geologia estrutural de uma fração da Província Mantiqueira Central, correspondente no flanco norte da divergência em leque da calha do rio Paraíba do Sul. O levantamento de duas seções geológico-estruturais (seção Três Matias - Matias Barbosa e seção Barra do Piraí - Conservatória) permitiu a caracterização das principais feições geométricas e cinemáticas na região. Além disso, a análise da orientação preferencial do retículo cristalino do quartzo em amostras coletadas ao longo dos perfis permitiu discutir os mecanismos de deformação e relacioná-los a um ambiente de crosta inferior. Na seção Três Rios - Matias Barbosa foram reconhecidos três domínios estruturais distintos. Em todos eles a direção da foliação permanece orientada NE-SW, mas o ângulo de mergulho diminui à medida que se distancia da zona de cisalhamento, tornando-se uma foliação de baixo ângulo no domínio II, e de mergulho moderado no domínio III. A lineação mineral e de estiramento apresenta-se de caimento baixo nos domínios I e II, tornando-se oblíqua no domínio III, com caimento para NE. Em cada domínio observam-se, em escala de afloramento, estruturas geometricamente distintas. Os indicadores cinemáticos são compatíveis em ambos os domínios, mostrando movimentação destral em plano horizontal, e de topo para SW, nos planos de baixo ângulo. Na seção Barra do Piraí - Conservatória, foram reconhecidos cinco domínios estruturais (I, II, III, IV e V). Os domínios I e V são caracterizados por uma foliação de alto ângulo na direção NE-SW e lineação direcional. Os domínios II, III e IV são caracterizados por uma foliação também na direção NE-SW, mas com o mergulho variando de baixo ângulo para NW, subvertical e baixo ângulo para SE, respectivamente. Os indicadores cinemáticos nos domínios I, III e V são coerentes com movimentação destral, mas não foram observados nos domínios II e IV. Da mesma forma como foi observado na seção Três Rios -Matias Barbosa, observa-se aqui, também, em escala de afloramento, intercalação de estruturas geometricamente distintas. Os dados microestruturais e de orientação preferencial do retículo cristalino mostram variação na predominância de cisalhamento simples e cisalhamento puro nos diferentes domínios. Além disso, são registradas mudanças na ativação dos sistemas de deslizamento que podem estar relacionadas tanto com a existência de um gradiente termal durante a deformação ao longo das duas seções, como devida à manutenção de alta temperatura mesmo após a deformação, caracterizando o processo de annealing. A mudança na geometria das estruturas pode ser caracterizada em termos da razão entre os componentes de cisalhamento simples e cisalhamento puro. Além disso, considerando-se as modelagens teóricas disponíveis, estas estruturas podem ser consideradas cinematicamente compatíveis em termos de um modelo de evolução tridimensional. Ambas as seções sugerem a existência de regiões resultantes da extrusão tectônica em regime transpressivo, correspondentes ao domínio II da seção Três Rios (RJ) - Matias Barbosa (MG) e os domínios II, III e IV da seção Barra do Piraí - Conservatória (RJ). A mudança lateral e a relação de sobreposição das estruturas são interpretadas como resultantes da partição espacial e temporal da deformação. Assim, sugere-se que as estruturas nesse setor da Província Mantiqueira foram geradas em um regime de deformação transpressivo não-confinado em uma evolução tectônica simples. / This study is about the structural geology of a portion of the Central Mantiqueira Province which corresponds to the north side of the structural divergence of the Rio Paraíba do Sul valley. Two geological cross-sections (Três Rios - Matias Barbosa and Barra do Piraí - Conservatória) provided geometrical and kinematics data. Lattice preferred orientation of quartz showed deformation mechanisms that affected these rocks in the lower crust. Three distinct structural domains were recognized in the Três Rios - Matias Barbosa cross-section. They present NE-SW foliation with decreasing dip distant from the shear zone, low dip at domain II and moderate dip at domain III. The mineral and stretching lineation present low plunging at domains I and II and significant NE oblique dip at domain III. In all domains of the meso-scale there are observed distinct geometrically structures. Kinematics indicators are likely in all domains showing horizontal dextral sliding and top-to SW from low dip. Five distinct domains were observed in the Barra do Piraí - Conservatória crosssection. Domains I and V are characterized by NE-SW steeply dipping foliation and strike lineation. Domains II, III and IV show NE-SW foliation presenting NW low dip, subvertical and SE low dip, respectively. Kinematics indicators at domains I, III and V show dextral shear sense, while in the domains II and IV, they were not observed. As in Três Rios - Matias Barbosa cross-section, meso-scale distinct geometrical structure intercalation were observed. Microstructural data and lattice preferred orientation present variation in simple shear and pure shear for different domains. A change on the slip systems can be associated to thermal gradient along cross-section during deformation or to high temperature maintenance after deformation, characterizing an annealing process. Changes on geometrical structures can be characterized as a relationship between simple shear and pure shear. Comparing these structures with theoretical modeling, we can consider them to be kinematics likely in a three-dimensional evolution model. Both crosssections suggest extrusion in transpressional tectonic pattern at domain II in Três Rios (RJ) - Matias Barbosa (MG) cross-section and domains II, III and IV in Barra do Piraí - Conservatória (RJ) cross-section. Lateral changes and structures overlapping are interpreted as a result of spatial and temporal partition of deformation. The presented data suggest that Mantiqueira Province structures in the studied area were generated by a non-confined transpressional deformation pattern in a simple tectonic evolution.

O desenvolvimento de ligas de alumínio de propriedades mecânicas intermediárias possibilitou a extrusão de alumínio a participar de grandes mercados como a construção civil, transportes, automobilística, estruturas, entre outras. O conhecimento do processo de extrusão propicia o aumento de produtividade com melhor desempenho e precisão dimensional do produto acabado. Neste trabalho, procurou-se analisar as características de conformação de perfis sólidos das ligas de alumínio AA6063 e AA6082 com razão de extrusão (RE) variando de 2,0 a 27,8 e tubular com RE de 8,7. A partir da extrusão realizada em uma prensa industrial de 3300 toneladas de força, compararam-se os resultados obtidos da tensão média de escoamento (\"sigma\") em função da temperatura de deformação e do parâmetro de Zener-Hollomon (Z) e este último em função do tamanho de subgrão observado no produto extrudado. Foram obtidos, em condições industriais, para estas ligas os valores da constante \"alpha\" que relaciona a RE com a pressão de fim de extrusão. Foram realizadas observações metalográficas e constatadas regiões de recristalização e de não recristalização diferentes para as ligas estudadas, bem como as relações do parâmetro Z e o tamanho do subgrão do produto sólido e tubular na liga AA6082. Em termos de textura foi possível obter as figuras de pólo e do tipo FDO no perfil extrudado ilustrando a presença de fibras do tipo \"beta\" (característica de produto conformado) e cubo (característica de produto recristalizado/recuperado). Os resultados confirmam valores próximos àqueles encontrados na literatura. / The development of medium strength aluminum alloys enabled aluminum extrusions to take part of the large world markets, associated with the building, transport and automotive industries, amongst several applications. The knowledge of the extrusion process details enables the productivity increase with better performance and higher dimensional accuracy of the finished extrusion product. In the present study the deformation characteristics of solid extrusion profiles in the AA6063 and AA6082 alloys with extrusion ratios (ER) in the range of 2.0 to 27.8 and for solid and tubular of 8.7 sections were studied. Extrusions were carried out in an industrial 3300 ton press. Results are compared in terms of average flow stress as a function of extrusion temperature and of the Zener-Hollomon (Z) parameter; the latter one also as a function of the observed subgrain size in the final product. Under industrial conditions, for the studies alloys, the values of the \"alpha\"-constant (which relates the end pressure to the extrusion ratio), has been evaluated. Metallographic observations have been conducted to study the recrystallised and unrecrystallised regions in the studied alloys, as well as the relationship between the Z parameter and the subgrain size of the end extrusion, both for the solid and tubular products, mainly for the AA6082 alloy. In terms of texture components it has been observed that the pole figures and the ODF´s of the extruded product presented the \"beta\" (characteristic of rolled/worked products) and cube (characteristic of recrystallised/recovered products). The results obtained confirmed those reported in the literature.

Thesis (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, 1982. / MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND ENGINEERING / Includes bibliographical references. / by Francis Abbott Waldman. / M.S.

A produção de mantas de tecido não tecido (TNT) por processo de extrusão a partir do poli(tereftalato de etileno) (PET) reciclado é uma forma interessante de reciclagem de polímeros adotada pela indústria que consegue conciliar viabilidade econômica com benefícios ambientais. Entretanto, durante a etapa de extrusão, muito material é perdido devido a entupimentos do equipamento ou outros motivos que acarretam na geração de uma quantidade considerável de rejeitos que não podem ser reaproveitados no sistema, devido à depreciação de propriedades ocorridas no material durante o processamento, levando ao descarte deste material geralmente em aterros sanitários. Neste trabalho foi feito um estudo sobre a reciclagem de rejeitos de PET das linhas de produção de mantas de tecido não tecido (TNT), adotando aditivos do tipo extensores de cadeia, para recuperar as propriedades que haviam sofrido grande depreciação. A incorporação de extensores de cadeia do tipo anidridos, isocianatos e fosforados, por meio de extrusão reativa, proporcionou melhorias consideráveis nas propriedades químicas, mecânicas e reológicas do rejeito de PET como aumento de massa molar, aumento de iscosidade no fundido e resistência à tração, facilitando o processamento e favorecendo a utilização do rejeito em novas etapas de reciclagem mecânica. Para as indústrias, a possibilidade de converter custos relacionados às operações de descarte de rejeitos em lucros com a agregação de valor a estes rejeitos poliméricos é extremamente interessante. Da mesma forma, a diminuição do volume de materiais poliméricos depositados no meio ambiente significa menos poluição e menos contaminação a diversos ecossistemas, apoiando os esforços que estão sendo feitos para a preservação e redução de poluentes na natureza. / The production of nonwoven fabrics (NWF) by extrusion process from recycled poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) is an interesting way for polymer recycling used by industry which to allow conciliate economic viability with environmental benefits. However, during extrusion step, a fraction of material is lost due to equipment clogging or others factors, leading to production of considerable amount of wastes which can not reinserted in system, due to the depreciation of material properties that occurs during thermal-mechanical processing. These rejects are generally deposited in land wastes. In this work was carried out a study about recycling of PET wastes from NWF production lines, using additives of chain extender kind to recoup properties that had been highly depreciated. The incorporation of chain extenders of kind anhydride, isocyanate and phosphorous compounds by reactive extrusion improved considerably some chemical, mechanical and rheological properties of PET waste such as increase in molecular weight, melt viscosity and strain strength, easing the thermal-mechanical processing and making possible the use of PET waste in news steps of mechanical recycling. The possibility to convert expenditures with wastes discarding operations into profits due to the values aggregation on these polymeric wastes is very interesting for the industries. Then, the decrease of amount of polymeric materials deposited in natural environment signifies less contamination to several ecosystems, supporting the works that have been realized to decrease pollutants and to preserve the nature.