Thesis(M.S.)--Auburn University, 2006. / Abstract. Vita. Includes bibliographic references.

<p>Summary</p><p>Herbal remedies have been used for many years to alleviate various symptoms. They were used in ritual acts to reassure the Gods and as medication. Plants as rhubarb and ginseng were used in China long time ago. The Egyptians had knowledge of herbal medicine such as aloe, myrrh and henbane, 1550 BC. The father of medicine Hippocrates used a large number of herbal medicines, and had many theories on the subject.</p><p>Different parts of the plant can be used to extract the active ingredients. The active ingredient is made up of essential oils, tanning substances etc. The parts that are used may be the root, stem, leaves, and flowers. In order to extract the active ingredients, you can use various strategies such as making tinctures or extracts. Echinacea has been used against various diseases, the plant now used to alleviate cold symptoms. St John's worth can be used for depression. Valerian can be used as a sedative. Ginkgo can be used for poor cerebral blood flow in the brain. The mental and physical performance can be increased with the help of ginseng. These are approved herbal medicine and the interest in them is increasing. But do they work and how safe are they?</p><p>Use and safety of Echinacea and Ginkgo where reviewed in the present study. Three scientific articles on the echinacea effect were studied, as were two articles about ginkgo. The aim of the Echinacea articles was to examine whether the plant was effective against the common or not. The other two articles examined ginkgo’s effect on memory problem and on tinnitus, respectively. Echinacea studies showed no significant difference therapeutically compared to placebo. The side effects were few, and not serious. The studies on ginkgo did not demonstrate any therapeutic difference compared to placebo. The side effects were few and not serious. These are approved herbal remedies. Do they really work, or could this effect rather be referred to as placebo? The use of herbal remedies as medicines could potentially be useful as complementary to traditional medicine. To read the instructions and follow the dosage, however, is an important part of the safety. More studies are also needed on the safety of herbal remedies.</p> / <p>Abstrakt</p><p>I många år har man använt sig av naturläkemedel för att lindra olika sjukdomssymtom. Dels användes förr dels i rituella handlingar för att blidka gudarna, och dels i medicineringssyfte. Växter som rabarber och ginseng användes i Kina. Egyptierna hade kunskaper om läkeväxter som aloe, myrra och bolmört, redan 1550 f.kr. Medicinens fader Hippokrates använde sig av ett stort antal läkeväxter och hade många teorier angående ämnet.</p><p>Olika delar av växten kan utnyttjas för att utvinna de aktiva substanserna. Delarna som används kan vara t ex roten, stammen, bladen, blomman. De aktiva substanserna består av eteriska oljor, garvämnen, slemämnen, bitterämnen m.m.. För att utvinna de aktiva substanserna använder man sig av olika bredningsformer som tinktur, extrakt eller annat.</p><p>Echinacea har använts mot flera olika sjukdomar. Nu används växten för att lindra förkylningssymtom. Johannesört ges mot depression. Som lugnande medel kan valeriana användas. Ginkgo kan användas vid dålig genomblödning, t ex i hjärnan. Den psykiska och fysiska prestationsförmågan kan höjas med hjälp av ginseng. Dessa är godkända naturläkemedel. Och intresset för dem ökar. Men fungerar de, och hur säkra är de?</p><p>I detta arbete granskades artiklar om Echinacea och Ginkgo, deras användning och säkerhet. Tre vetenskapliga artiklar, angående echinaceas effekt studerades, samt två artiklar om ginkgo. Echinacea-artiklarnas syfte var att undersöka om växten hade effekt mot förkylning. De andra två artiklarna undersökte ginkgos effekt dels mot minnesproblem, och dels mot tinnitus. Echinaceastudierna visade ingen signifikant terapeutisk skillnad jämfört med placebo. De biverkningar som fanns var få och inte allvarliga. Studierna om ginkgo visade inte heller någon terapeutisk skillnad jämfört med placebo. Biverkningarna var även här få och inte allvarliga. Dessa godkända naturläkemedel, har i andra studier visat vetenskapligt bevisad effekt, men kan denna effekt möjligen framför allt vara en placeboeffekt?</p><p>Användningen av naturläkemedel kan vara ett bra komplement till traditionell medicinering. Att läsa anvisningarna och följa doseringen är dock en viktig del av säkerheten. Flera studier behövs även kring säkerheten med naturläkemedel.</p><p>2008:F26</p>

M.Tech. (Homoeopathy) / The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of the homoeopathic complex formula consisting of , Echinacea angustifolia tincture, Baptisia tinctoria tincture and Thuja occidentalis D1 on circulating leukocytes. These medicinal plants have immune enhancing properties and an effect on leukocytes. Leukocytes play an important role in the body's defence system. 54 volunteers participated in a randomised double blind placebo controlled trial. An initial full blood count before treatment served as a base-line control for each volunteer. A total of 15ml of the medication placebo was administered over 3 hours. After the last dose, a further three blood samples were drawn at 90 minute intervals. Blood analysis included a differential leukocyte count. The trial was conducted over a single 6 hour period. The homoeopathic medication caused a decrease in circulating leukocytes, specifically lymphocytes. The efficacy of this medicationas an immunostimulant should be confirmed on a larger study sample.

Bakgrund Influensa är en akut respiratorisk infektion som orsakas av ett negativt RNA-virus. Insjuknade i influensa sker ofta under vintertid. Influensa finns i fyra olika typer, A-D. A är den vanligaste sorten under influensasäsong och påverkar både människor och djur, medan D påverkar främst grisar och nötkreatur. Influensa kännetecknas av att det börjar med en frossa och med en snabbt stigande feber (över 40℃) samt med muskelvärk och med en märkbar sjukdomskänsla. Efteråt sprids infektionen till luftvägarna, där det uppkommer symtom i form av torrhosta. Influensa sprids genom luftburna aerosoler eller genom dropp- och kontaktsmitta. Influensaviruset tar sig in i cellen via sina ytproteiner hemagglutinin (HA) och neuraminidas (NA) och sedan tar det sig in till värdcellens kärna, vilket leder till replikation av viruset. Vid influensasäsongen ges vaccinationer till personer som är över 65 år, och till är gravida och till personer som har någon underliggande kronisk sjukdom. Detta görs för att förhindra allvarlig sjukdom och för att kunna minska antalet komplikationer och dödsfall under influensasäsongen. Neuraminidashämmare som exempelvis oseltamivir och zanamivir kan ges för smärtlindring under influensan i fem dagar. Växten Echinacea purpurea och dess extrakt används som behandling av luftvägsinfektioner exempelvis hosta och vid inflammatoriska tillstånd, som exempelvis bronkit. Studier på olika extrakt av Echinacea purpurea har visat ökade halter av cytokiner som exempelvis TNF-α, IL-1 och IFN- β. Det har även visat en ökad aktivitet av fagocyterna och makrofager. En ökad mobilitet har också setts hos både leukocyter och aktivering av NK-celler. Syfte Syftet med arbetet var att undersöka om Echinacea purpurea har en symtomlindrande effekt på influensa A, speciellt på symtom som feber och hosta. Metod Publicerade vetenskapliga artiklar söktes i databasen Pubmed och OneSearch. Sökorden för artiklarna var “Influenza AND Echinacea purpurea” eller “Echinacea AND flu” I OneSearch användes sökorden “Influenza AND Echinacea purpurea”.ResultatStudierna visar att symtomen hosta och feber reducerades vid användning av Echinacea purpurea extrakt under behandling av influensa A. Behandlingen med Echinacea purpurea hade en bättre verkan vid användningen av en högre dos av extraktet (2000 mg) och om det användes några dagar innan influensasymtom uppträdde eller vid början av influensasymtom. Slutsats Utifrån de publicerade resultaten av de fyra studierna verkar Echinacea purpurea ha en mildrande effekt på hosta och feber under akuta luftvägsinfektioner. Det visade att dosen som hade mest effekt i dessa studier, var 2000 mg av växtextrakt från Echinacea purpurea. Dessa resultat erhölls vid behandling av i övrigt friskaindivider som endast hade förkylningssymtom eller influensasymtom, vilket gör att Echinacea purpurea extrakt kan ha andra effekter om det används på kroniskt sjuka individer. Flera äldre vaccinerar sig mot influensa, vilket gör att Echinacea purpurea extrakt har mer gynnsam effekt på yngre personer som har drabbats av influensa t.ex. barn eller unga vuxna. / Background Influenza is an acute respiratory infection which is caused by a negative stranded RNA-virus. Infection usually happens during the winter season. There are four different types of influenza, A-D. Type A is the most common one and affects both humans and animals, while type D has only been detected in pigs and cattle. Influenza starts with chills with a quickly rising fever (over 40℃) together with muscle pains. Afterwards the infection spreads to the airways, where the symptoms of dry cough arise. Influenzaspreads through airborne aerosols or through contact. The influenza virus enters the hostcell through the surface proteins HA and NA, while later entering the nucleus where the replication of the virus occurs. Before the flu season begins, people over the age of 65, pregnant women and patients with a chronic disease are vaccinated. This is done to prevent serious diseases that may occur during the flu and to lower the rate of secondary infections and also to prevent death. Medications such as oseltamivir and zanamivir can be given to treat the infection; however, they are mostly used to relieve symptoms. Echinacea purpurea is a traditionally used medicinal plant which has been used to treat respiratory tract infections like respiratory infections and inflammatory conditions such as bronchitis. Studies on different extracts of Echinacea purpurea have shown that they increase levels of TNF-ɑ, IL-1 and IFN-β as well as an increase of macrophages and other phagocytes after treatment with Echinacea extract. Similarly, the extract has shown an increased mobility of leukocytes and activation of Natural Killer-cells. Aim The aim of this study was to examine if treatment with medications containing extracts of Echinacea purpurea relieved symptoms such as, cough and fever, when used in the treatment of influenza A. Method The previously published articles were searched for by using the databases Pubmed and OneSearch. The words used in the search for published articles were “Influenza AND Echinacea purpurea” or ”Echinacea AND flu” in Pubmed. In the database, OneSearch the words “Influenza AND Echinacea purpurea'' were used. Results The selected studies showed that the symptoms such as cough and fever, were reduced in studied patients that used Echinacea purpurea extracts during the treatment of influenza A. Infection was verified through nasal swabs that then were screened. The results showed that the treatment was more effective when using a dose of 2000 mg of Echinacea purpurea extract. Moreover the treatment was effective when used a few days before symptoms occurred or at the beginning of a respiratory tract infection. Conclusion The results from the four studies suggested that the extract from Echinacea purpureareduces cough and fever during acute respiratory infections. The dosage of 2000 mg Echinacea purpurea extract had the most effect. However the extracts were tested on healthy people that only had common cold symptoms or influenza symptoms, thus different results could have been obtained if the effects were tested on unhealthy individuals.

La fabrication d’un médicament sous forme de comprimés à base d'une plante fraîche reste actuellement encore un véritable enjeu et ce, à cause de la variabilité qui peut exister dans les différents lots d'extraits de plantes ainsi qu’à la limite imposée par les techniques de fabrication de comprimés existantes actuellement. Différents problèmes rencontrés avec la formulation actuelle de ce type de comprimés ont été observés tels que : les propriétés physiques du comprimé (très faible dureté des comprimés et temps de désagrégation assez long), goût désagréable, grande variabilité (variabilité de l'extrait sec) et mauvaise stabilité de la substance médicamenteuse. Des observations antérieures ont indiqué que la stabilité de la substance médicamenteuse dans les comprimés d'Echinacea purpurea ainsi que le goût peuvent être améliorés en la mélangeant avec de la bêta-cyclodextrine (β-CD). Dans la thèse de doctorat, une formulation actuelle commercialisée de comprimés d’Echinacea purpurea a été réalisée par la technique de la granulation par voie humide, avec un mélangeur à cisaillement élevé. Dans la formulation, presque la totalité de l'excipient (lactose monohydraté) est mouillé par le concentré d'Echinacea purpurea. Afin de réduire la quantité d'excipients à granuler et à sécher et d’obtenir un produit avec moins cher des couts de matériaux premières, un procédé de granulation classique a été proposé où seulement une fraction de la quantité totale de charge (cellulose microcristalline (MCC)) est utilisée pour la granulation et le séchage; le reste de la charge (sorbitol) est ajouté après la granulation. Ce granulat peut servir de matériau de base des différents comprimés. Dans les différentes expérimentations réalisées, la teinture d’Echinacea purpurea a été utilisée comme modèle pour l'optimisation de la fabrication des comprimés à base de plantes. L'objectif de la thèse était par conséquent de développer une nouvelle formulation de comprimés d’Echinacea purpurea en utilisant un procédé de granulation classique. Avec une meilleure maîtrise de la granulation humide (WGP) et son influence sur les propriétés physiques des comprimés, ceux-ci doivent être optimisés du point du vue de la stabilité de l'ingrédient actif qui se présente sous forme solide (alkylamides) et des propriétés physiques des comprimés, en particulier le taux de dissolution et les propriétés physiques des comprimés. / One current formulation of Echinacea tablets which is examined in the present thesis is to produce tablets in a wet granulation process (WGP) with a high shear mixer. During the manufacturing, almost the whole amount of the excipient (lactose monohydrate) is wetted by Echinacea purpurea concentrate. In order to reduce the amount of excipients being granulated and dried by a basis granulate method was proposed where only a fraction of the total amount of filler (Microcrystalline cellulose, MCC) is used for granulation and drying, the rest of the filler (sorbitol) is added after granulation. This granulate can serve as basis material for different tablets.Purpose: in the PhD thesis, tablets containing Echinacea purpurea tincture were used as a model for the optimization of herbal tablets. The aim of the dissertation was to develop a new Echinaforce formulation based on the “Basis Granulate” technology. With deeper understanding of the WGP and its influence on the physical tablet properties, the new Echinaforce tablets should be optimized in term of cost of goods, taste of tablets, stability of the active ingredient in solid forms (alkylamides) and the physical tablet properties of Echinaforce tablets, especially the dissolution rate and the compaction properties of the final tablet.

For over a century, documented scientific research and debate has revolved around the therapeutic properties of the medicinal plant Echinacea angustifolia. With overwhelming evidence demonstrating the biological activity of its root phytochemical constituents, the genetic improvement of E. angustifolia by selecting phytochemically rich genotypes has garnered both scientific and commercial interest. This dissertation presents results of multi-disciplinary experiments intended to help establish scientifically based guidelines for breeding efforts aimed at developing therapeutically superior varieties of E. angustifolia in British Columbia. Cultivated E. angustifolia populations from British Columbia and Washington were grown in a common greenhouse environment to identify possible genetically superior populations with respect to root concentrations of therapeutically relevant caffeic acid derivatives (CAD) and alkamides. However, none of the studied cultivated E. angustifolia populations showed significant genetic differences in terms of root phytochemical traits. In the second part, an investigation into correlations between root and shoot phytochemical concentrations in field- and greenhouse-grown plants revealed that concentrations of therapeutically relevant marker compounds in shoots were generally poor predictors of concentrations in roots. Some weak yet significant positive correlations were observed between root and shoot concentrations of CADs but were inconsistent between the two environments. Significant genotype by environment interactions were documented for the first time in phytochemical traits of E. angustifolia in a study of five genetically homogeneous populations grown in three different environments, including 1 greenhouse and 2 field sites in British Columbia. For the final objective, in vitro bioassays showed that environmentally and genotypically related differences in concentrations of CADs and alkamides in E. angustifolia ethanolic root extracts did not translate into significant differences in their anti-inflammatory potential as measured by pro-inflammatory interleukin (IL-6 and IL-8) secretion in human bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells challenged with rhinovirus. When used in isolation however, pure tetraene alkamide showed a significant inhibitory effect on secretion, thereby further supporting the use of high alkamide production as a selection criterion for therapeutic E. angustifolia cultivar development. A series of recommendations derived from these findings are presented along with ideas for important future studies in the field of Echinacea research.

To determine the level of salt tolerance of the medicinal plant Echinacea, the physiological and biochemical characteristics of E. purpurea, E. pallida and E. angustifolia exposed to different NaCl levels (0, 50, 75, and 100 mM) were evaluated under hydroponic culture. Dry weights of shoots and roots were not affected by salinity; however E. purpurea and E. pallida exhibited higher survival rate than E. angustifolia, which also showed high salt injury index and electrolyte leakage compared to the other two species. Gas exchange (photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate) showed a decline with increasing salt concentrations in all species with a more pronounced reduction in E. angustifolia. E. purpurea was able to retain more Na+ in the roots than the other two species showing its capacity to regulate Na+ translocation to shoots (Na+ exclusion). Moreover, the activities of two major antioxidant enzymes; superoxide dismutase (SOD) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) were increased by salinity in E purperea, while the activities were decreased in E. angustifolia. The characteristic phytochemical profiles of caffeic acid derivatives (CADs) and alkamides/ketones were obtained for the three species, and quantitative changes were determined. Cichoric acid, the major CAD in E. purpurea, was increased with salinity up to 75 mM NaCl. A relative increase in alkamides and CADs was recorded in E. angustifolia, while in E. pallida, the level of echinacoside and major ketones (22 and 24) decreased, suggesting that the medicinal value of this species was compromised by salt stress. First evidence of salt-induced changes in alkamides and ketones in Echinacea was demonstrated in this study. Activity of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), the major enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of CADs, was increased only in the roots of E. purpurea, further reflecting the differences in salt tolerance between species. It can be concluded that Echinacea species exhibited a limited degree of salt tolerance; however, E. purpurea showed a higher tolerance than E. pallida and E. angustifolia. This tolerance was mainly attributed to the increase in Na+ exclusion capacity, antioxidant activities and PAL activity.

Inconsistent seed germination poses a problem for efficient seedling production of Echinacea species. Evidence suggests that ethylene can be effective for improving germination in Echinacea species. The objectives of this research were: to develop an ethylene pre-germination treatment that enhances germination in Echinacea species that is retained following drying and storage, and to determine if the ethylene effect on enhanced germination was an important mode of action for dormancy release. Four species of Echinacea (E. purpurea, E. tennesseensis, E. angustifolia and E. simulata) treated with 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) or ethephon resulted in faster and generally higher germination. Pre-treatment of seeds with ACC or ethephon followed by drying was as effective as chilling stratification for enhancing germination depending on the species. While ethylene pretreatments did increase germination to some extent depending on species, it was concluded that 60-day stratification alone was a more commercially-viable treatment. Ethylene production or perception was not necessary for germination in untreated or stratified seeds as shown by aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG), silver thiosulfate (STS), and 1-methylcyclopropene (MCP) treatments. Both stratification and ACC treatment reduced Echinacea seed sensitivity to ABA and could be a common mechanism for enhanced germination. However, it does not appear that the increased germination seen after stratification was mediated through ethylene production because final germination percentages were generally unchanged following inhibition of ethylene production or action. In contrast, inhibition of ethylene production and perception reduced early 3-day germination suggesting that ethylene was more involved in seed vigor than final germination. It was determined that there is no physiological significance of ethylene for dormancy release in these Echinacea species.

To determine the level of salt tolerance of the medicinal plant Echinacea, the physiological and biochemical characteristics of E. purpurea, E. pallida and E. angustifolia exposed to different NaCl levels (0, 50, 75, and 100 mM) were evaluated under hydroponic culture. Dry weights of shoots and roots were not affected by salinity; however E. purpurea and E. pallida exhibited higher survival rate than E. angustifolia, which also showed high salt injury index and electrolyte leakage compared to the other two species. Gas exchange (photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate) showed a decline with increasing salt concentrations in all species with a more pronounced reduction in E. angustifolia. E. purpurea was able to retain more Na+ in the roots than the other two species showing its capacity to regulate Na+ translocation to shoots (Na+ exclusion). Moreover, the activities of two major antioxidant enzymes; superoxide dismutase (SOD) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) were increased by salinity in E purperea, while the activities were decreased in E. angustifolia. The characteristic phytochemical profiles of caffeic acid derivatives (CADs) and alkamides/ketones were obtained for the three species, and quantitative changes were determined. Cichoric acid, the major CAD in E. purpurea, was increased with salinity up to 75 mM NaCl. A relative increase in alkamides and CADs was recorded in E. angustifolia, while in E. pallida, the level of echinacoside and major ketones (22 and 24) decreased, suggesting that the medicinal value of this species was compromised by salt stress. First evidence of salt-induced changes in alkamides and ketones in Echinacea was demonstrated in this study. Activity of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), the major enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of CADs, was increased only in the roots of E. purpurea, further reflecting the differences in salt tolerance between species. It can be concluded that Echinacea species exhibited a limited degree of salt tolerance; however, E. purpurea showed a higher tolerance than E. pallida and E. angustifolia. This tolerance was mainly attributed to the increase in Na+ exclusion capacity, antioxidant activities and PAL activity.

For over a century, documented scientific research and debate has revolved around the therapeutic properties of the medicinal plant Echinacea angustifolia. With overwhelming evidence demonstrating the biological activity of its root phytochemical constituents, the genetic improvement of E. angustifolia by selecting phytochemically rich genotypes has garnered both scientific and commercial interest. This dissertation presents results of multi-disciplinary experiments intended to help establish scientifically based guidelines for breeding efforts aimed at developing therapeutically superior varieties of E. angustifolia in British Columbia. Cultivated E. angustifolia populations from British Columbia and Washington were grown in a common greenhouse environment to identify possible genetically superior populations with respect to root concentrations of therapeutically relevant caffeic acid derivatives (CAD) and alkamides. However, none of the studied cultivated E. angustifolia populations showed significant genetic differences in terms of root phytochemical traits. In the second part, an investigation into correlations between root and shoot phytochemical concentrations in field- and greenhouse-grown plants revealed that concentrations of therapeutically relevant marker compounds in shoots were generally poor predictors of concentrations in roots. Some weak yet significant positive correlations were observed between root and shoot concentrations of CADs but were inconsistent between the two environments. Significant genotype by environment interactions were documented for the first time in phytochemical traits of E. angustifolia in a study of five genetically homogeneous populations grown in three different environments, including 1 greenhouse and 2 field sites in British Columbia. For the final objective, in vitro bioassays showed that environmentally and genotypically related differences in concentrations of CADs and alkamides in E. angustifolia ethanolic root extracts did not translate into significant differences in their anti-inflammatory potential as measured by pro-inflammatory interleukin (IL-6 and IL-8) secretion in human bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells challenged with rhinovirus. When used in isolation however, pure tetraene alkamide showed a significant inhibitory effect on secretion, thereby further supporting the use of high alkamide production as a selection criterion for therapeutic E. angustifolia cultivar development. A series of recommendations derived from these findings are presented along with ideas for important future studies in the field of Echinacea research.