Bicycle manufacturers in Punjab and Haryana

Intern kontroll fick ökad uppmärksamhet i svenskt näringsliv i och med att en svensk kod för bolagsstyrning (Koden) gavs ut 2004. Att övervaka och bedöma den interna kontrollen är ett komplext och omfattande ansvar som är svårt att överblicka för en enskild styrelseledamot. Viss forskning har bedrivits under 2000-talet inom bolagsstyrning och intern kontroll. Revisionsutskottets möjlighet att säkerställa den interna kontrollen och minska riskerna för felaktigheter i den finansiella rapporteringen har bl.a. studerats. När arbetet med den här avhandlingen påbörjades fanns i huvudsak endast forskning som baserade sig på andra länders regelsystem. Svensk bolagsstyrning har till stora delar påverkats av regelsystemen i de anglosaxiska länderna, men vissa förhållanden är specifika för bolag som är noterade på svenska börser. Det är därför angeläget att studera bolagsstyrning och intern kontroll från ett svensktperspektiv. I avhandling ges en genomgång av Koden och dess formulering av styrelsens ansvar för intern kontroll. Syftet är att undersöka hur tydligt styrelsens ansvar har formulerats i Kodens regelverk samt vilka förutsättningar styrelsen har att följa reglerna. En empirisk studie genomfördes under 2007–2008, då ett 80-tal svenska börsföretag var berörda av Koden. I studien intervjuas tio styrelseledamöter om hur de upplever sitt ansvar för företagets interna kontroll och sin roll gentemot övriga bolagsorgan, dvs. ägarna, företagsledningen och revisorerna. Som ett komplement till intervjuerna analyseras 2007 års internkontrollrapporter för de företag där styrelseledamöterna varit verksamma. När Koden gavs ut hade vare sig regelsättarna eller svenska styrelseledamöter en tydlig bild över innebörden och nyttan av intern kontroll. Tidigare studier om bolagsstyrning visar att det tar tid innan förändringar får genomslag. Även denna studie visar att förändringar sker successivt. I de företag som analyserats pågår ett arbete som syftar till att förbättra den interna kontrollen. För att nå framgång i arbetet har styrelseledamöterna anammat ett pragmatiskt synsätt på sitt ansvar, som till stor del innebär att de förlitar sig på samarbete med företagsledningen. I stället för att utöva strikt kontroll och övervakning, söker styrelseledamöterna skapa en effektiv företagskultur där de  tillsammans med företagsledningen strävar efter en god intern kontroll i bolaget. I likhet med tidigare forskningsresultat visar denna studie att kravet på revisionsutskott medfört att kontakterna mellan styrelsen och revisorerna har underlättats. Mötena i revisionsutskottet ger styrelsen en möjlighet att fördjupa sig i frågor om intern kontroll och finansiell rapportering. Dock saknas mer handfasta riktlinjer om vad revisorernas rapportering på utskottsmötena bör innehålla. Det finns en risk för ett förväntningsgap mellan styrelseledamöterna och revisorerna beträffande rapporteringens innehåll, och på vilket sätt den bör kommuniceras. Studien visar att internkontrollrapporteringen vid de undersökta företagen är alltför generell för att läsaren ska kunna få en uppfattning om företagets riskhanteringsprocess och kontrollåtgärder. Genom att komplettera Kodens Vägledning med förtydligande och metodbeskrivningar för riskbedömning skulle rapporteringen kunna göras mer informativ. Vidare visar studien att Kodens otydliga definition av internrevision återspeglas i styrelseledamöternas uppfattning om internrevisionens roll i internkontrollfrågor. Vare sig Koden eller Kodens vägledning beskriver internrevisionens roll och ansvar eller hur den kan bidra till att ge styrelsen ökad kunskap om bolagets interna kontrollstruktur. Kodens regler baseras på självreglering, vilket möjliggör för styrelsen att frångå reglerna och i stället ge en förklaring till varför dessa inte följs. Det ställs därför krav på att aktörer, såsom investerare, regelsättare och medier, intresserar sig för den information som lämnas eller inte lämnas, i styrelsens internkontrollrapportering. Om ingen efterfrågar informationen eller ställer krav på innehållet kommer intresset att minska, och företagens brist på god intern kontroll kommer endast att få fokus i samband med företagsskandaler.

Abstract Title Perception of consumers regarding the use of data in the sharing economy. Authors Laval Maeva & Noiraut Alexian Level Bachelor thesis, 15 ECTS credit Supervisor Venilton Reinert Examiner Hélène Laurell Keywords sharing economy, Y generation, consumers’ perception, and data Background As link between consumption of collaborative economy and perception of data had not yet been investigated; a more indepth analysis of consumer perception of data use by companies is needed. Purpose The purpose of this study is to understand the consumers’ perception about the use of their data by companies of the sharing economy. The goal is to see if they are aware of this phenomenon and if it would modify their behavior regarding the use of these online platforms. Research Question How does the generation Y perceive the fact that companies use their data in Sharing Economy businesses? Method A quantitative, qualitative research has been done for this study to understand generation Y's perception of the sharing economy regarding the use of data by companies. With this research, we focused on a survey but also on four focus groups composed of five persons: French students aged from 18 to 25 years old who travel often for both studies and leisure. We took people from different social backgrounds and have chosen different studies. We emphasize this research with previous theories about the consumer behavior with the buyer decision process in the sharing economy, the selfperception and the price-perception. Theoretical framework: Theories regarding perception on several aspects, from the individual values, to benefit going through price have been included as a basis of discussion in order to analyze our empirical findings. Findings and conclusion Through our research study, we have seen that the Y generation uses the sharing economy essentially for the economy benefit and the time saved but also for its social character and its environmental aspect. Data protection is a really concerning matter for Y generation but they don’t do much about it. Internet use is essential for young people so they accept, when they are aware, to give their data against the free usage of the platform. In addition, we have noticed that the main marketing application of data collection, customized advertising, are misconducted by companies and doesn’t reach users. Despite the awareness of users regarding the protection of data, this generation thinks that collaborative platforms are not so intrusive in their privacy regarding personal information request.

<p> Economic activity frequently takes place in markets that are subject to search frictions. To reduce search costs, agents often interact repeatedly with the same partner, for example through long-term employment contracts or in long-term business relationships. The main purpose of my dissertation is to study long-term relationships between firms. Chapters 1-2 use confidential, transaction-level import data from the U.S. Census to comprehensively analyze long-term business relationships, and use theory to illuminate their potential macroeconomic effects. Chapter 3 studies how labor market institutions affect worker-firm relationships, specifically the allocation of workers to firms. </p><p> In the first chapter of my dissertation, I investigate how long-term buyer-seller relationships affect price rigidity. Economists have long suspected that firm-to-firm relationships might increase price rigidity due to the use of explicit or implicit fixed-price contracts. I study the responsiveness of import prices to exchange rate changes in the Census data and show that prices are in fact substantially more responsive to these cost shocks in older versus newly formed relationships. Based on additional stylized facts about the life cycle of relationships and interviews I conducted with purchasing managers, I develop a model in which a buyer-seller pair subject to persistent, stochastic shocks to production costs shares profit risk under limited commitment. Relationships that experience good shocks have lower costs, trade more, and survive longer, which generates the life cycle. Furthermore, since partners in older relationships on average enjoy a greater relationship surplus, alternative matches are less attractive to them, which enables the firms to share profit risk more completely by setting prices that are more responsive to shocks. Once structurally estimated, the model replicates the empirical correlation between relationship age and price flexibility. My results suggest that changes to the average length of relationships in the economy &ndash; e.g., in a recession, when the share of young relationships declines &ndash; can influence price flexibility and thus the effectiveness of monetary policy. </p><p> The second chapter (co-authored with Justin Pierce, Georg Schaur, and Peter Schott) examines how trade barriers affect firms' relationships with suppliers. In our theoretical framework, firms can conduct purchases under two opposing systems. Under the "Japanese" system, buyers motivate sellers to maintain product quality via small, frequent orders at a price above seller's cost and by promising a continued relationship if the quality is good. Under the "American" system, buyers place large orders with the lowest cost bidder and quality is ensured via costly inspection. A lower probability of a trade war increases firms' incentives to switch to Japanese-style procurement since it makes long-term relationships more sustainable. We test the model's predictions using the Census data. We use a differences-in-differences strategy to exploit a shift in U.S. trade policy which eliminated the threat of a rise in U.S. tariffs for Chinese imports to potentially prohibitive levels. Consistent with our predictions, we find a shift of procurement practices towards the Japanese system after the policy change. The results suggest that trade agreements which allow firms to develop long-term relationships may give rise to a new source of welfare gains from trade associated with lower inventory and monitoring costs. </p><p> The third chapter of my dissertation (co-authored with Tommaso Porzio) focuses on worker-firm relationships. We investigate whether a change in labor market regulations can improve the allocative efficiency of worker-firm matches. We study this question using the German reunification as a natural experiment that exposed East Germany to Western-style institutions. Interpreting a firm's median wage as a measure of its inherent productivity, we use matched employer-employee data to examine the evolution of allocative efficiency, defined as the correlation between a firm's median wage and its number of workers. We find that East German allocative efficiency is significantly below West German efficiency levels even 20 years after the reunification, for two reasons. First, East German workers face a flatter job ladder: when moving job-to-job, the difference between their previous firm's median wage and their new firm's median wage is smaller than in the West. Second, East German workers more frequently become unemployed. We rationalize our findings in a job ladder model with low and high productivity firms in which East Germany has a higher risk of job termination than the West. This higher risk of employment relationship separation lowers the incentive for high productivity firms to post vacancies, which flattens the job ladder. Our work highlights that policies shifting a country's labor market institutions towards Western policies may fail to generate large efficiency gains when the shift is accompanied by a rise in unemployment.</p>

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Bakgrund &amp; problem: Det senaste årtiondet har medfört stora förändringar i redovisningen. Nya regelverk har trätt fram. K2 och K3 är regelverk som många fastighetsföretag har fått välja mellan inför räkenskapsåret 2014. Eftersom K-regelverken har olika regler och principer måste företag välja det regelverk som passar dem bäst. K2 framhålls som ett mer regelbaserat regelverk, medan K3 framhålls som ett principbaserat regelverk. Det har pratats mycket om att komponentredovisning har spelat en stor faktor i valet mellan K-regelverken. Då olika faktorer påverkar beslutsförfattarna undersöker denna studie vilka faktorer som haft betydelse. Syfte: Syftet med studien är att skapa en ökad förståelse för vilka aspekter som påverkat mindre fastighetsföretag vid val av redovisningsregler vid upprättandet av finansiella rapporter. Urval: Tre fastighetsföretag, tre redovisningskonsulter och två revisorer har använts som studieobjekt i denna studie. Metod: En kvalitativ metod har tillämpats, där både primär- och sekundär data har använts i form av intervjuer samt böcker och artiklar. Slutsatser: Vi har kommit fram till att storleken på företaget, externa intressenter, kostnadsfrågan, revisorn/redovisningsekonomerna, effektivitet och framför allt komponentmetoden haft störst påverkan vid valet mellan K2 och K3.

Health economic evaluations are today commonly used in the decision‐making process in health care. Within the field of cost‐effectiveness analysis (CEA), there are several methodological and empirical issues that cause debate about what is included in the analysis. This thesis covers two such issues; costs and effects for relatives, and the valuation of individuals’ productivity loss due to morbidity. The objective of the thesis is to provide further knowledge about what should be included in CEAs which take a societal approach. The papers that the thesis is based on, four in total, examine the theoretical aspects of the studied issues and test these aspects empirically. Three different data materials were used. The CEA and the estimation of costs and effects are central in all the papers. The outcome measure used is quality‐adjusted life years (QALYs). The relatives of an individual with a disease or disability often provide informal care, and there may also be concomitant effect on their own well‐being. Nevertheless, the costs and effects for the relatives are generally excluded from CEAs, and there are few guidelines for how to include relatives’ effects. This thesis suggests the use of a new measure, R‐QALYs, which can be used both to visualise relatives’ effects and to include them in the analysis. We found that while the EQ‐5D instrument can be used to capture some of the relatives’ effects, it most likely misses a number of important attributes, for example altruistic preferences. Methods of eliciting R‐QALY weights include direct valuation methods and indirect methods, using existing relativerelated instruments. However, none of these methods are without difficulties, and there is a need for more studies on estimating valid relatives’ effects. Another possible approach with high potential is to use monetary measurements for both the costs and effects relevant to relatives. The results also show that income affects the QALY weights if the individuals include the utility generated by consumption within their QALY weights. The empirical tests showed that a majority of individuals do not consider their own income when they value health states. An explicit instruction to take income into account seemed to affect the valuation of those health states that were assumed to have consequences on the ability to perform daily activities. These findings give support for including the productivity costs caused by morbidity in the analysis; as these costs are not, or are only to a minor extent, implicitly incorporated in individuals’ QALY weights. The loss of leisure time, however, is captured in the QALY weight, and care must be taken to avoid double counting this loss in the analysis. The results of CEAs will only be partial if relatives’ costs and effects and the costs of individuals’ productivity loss are excluded for health interventions where they are assumed to be of significant importance.

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