It is well known that invasive alien plants (IAPs) pose a significant threat to natural biodiversity and human well-being. Through various pressures exerted on natural ecosystems, IAPs decrease and alter natural processes that provide important ecosystems services and livelihoods to human communities. These plants also displace and out-compete natural plant communities in the areas in which they invade. Management of IAPs is a complex issue with social, environmental and financial challenges. The long-term sustainable management of IAPs requires a management approach that monitors and measures the outcomes of current management practices, and considers the lessons learnt in future decision making. Adaptive management is such an approach and is characterised by monitoring, assessment, reflection and adaptation. In this dissertation I explore IAP management within the South African National Parks (SANParks) organisation. I focus on the quality of the available IAP clearing data for monitoring and environmental decision-making and explore how strategic adaptive management (SAM) is being applied to IAP management. Strategic adaptive management is a form of adaptive management that SANParks adopted to deal with the inherent unpredictability of the social ecological systems they manage, and is primarily a learning-by-doing approach. In chapter one I describe the various impacts that IAPs have on natural environments. I also discuss management of IAPs, the national Working for Water (WfW) programme and how SANParks control IAPs in partnership with WfW. Clearing of IAPs within the borders of SANParks is funded by the Department of Environmental Affairs‘ (DEA) Natural Resource Management programmes and carried out through the Working for Water programme, under SANParks‘ Biodiversity Social Projects programme and is done on a contract basis. Contract data are stored in the Working for Water Information Management System (WIMS) database. Although IAP clearing is well established, the efficiency of overall clearing operations within the parks, and quality and reliability of the data available in the WIMS, needs to be examined. In Chapter two, I (i) assess the status of IAP clearing and the direct clearing costs in each of the five national parks (costs are inflated to 2012 equivalents using the consumer price index), (ii) assess the accuracy of workload estimations for WfW IAP clearing, and (iii) discuss the utility of WIMS as a system to collate and store accurate data for monitoring purposes, focusing on the integrity and reliability of the data, the accuracy of density estimations and whether it can inform sound decision making. The planning of future clearing contracts lacks efficiency due to inaccuracies and unreliability of input data, specifically estimates of invasive alien plant density. The accuracy of density estimation and cost of clearing varies greatly between parks and does not appear to reflect the reality on the ground. In Chapter 3, through an interview process with IAP managers, I 1) unpack the steps in the SAM ‗cycle‘ and investigate the effectiveness of implementation of each step according to respondents; 2) assess the barriers that are currently keeping managers from implementing effective IAP management; 3) discuss whether learning and adaptation is taking place, and 4) discuss how the SAM process can be modified to promote its effectiveness.

The Lake Minnewanka area is one of Banff National Park's most scenic and highly visited regions. Impacts such as the loss of significant montane habitat (characteristic of the Lower Bow Valley ecosystem) and social implications like crowding led to the need to develop a strategy for managing the area. The author worked with a planning team from the Canadian Parks Service(CPS) in Banff National Park (BNP) to develop the Minnewanka Area Plan. The primary purpose of the thesis is to evaluate the Minnewanka Area Plan to determine whether it effectively serves to maintain and enhance ecological integrity. A theoretical framework based on integrated ecosystem management was developed to evaluate the plan. Normative criteria from literature on recreational carrying capacity management and meaningful public participation were defined and applied to the plan. Overall, the plan was rated as successful according to the normative criteria. All of the criteria for an effective approach to carrying capacity management were considered and the plan reflected a fair and efficient public participation process. Stakeholder input influenced plan decisions to a high degree and several partnerships were developed through the planning process. Several inadequacies in the plan were identified through the evaluation. The adoption of an approach to ecosystem management called the Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) was recommended as a guiding principle within the plan. The step-by-step LAC model was seen as overly complex in the context of the case study. Indicators and a monitoring program which are central to the LAC process were not defined as part of the plan. The evaluation of the public participation process indicated that stakeholder participation was high early in the planning process and reflected a partnership relationship where stakeholders shared the power of decision-making. During completion of the draft and final plan, the process became one of public consultation where the level and frequency of participation was lowered. Recommendations for improving the efficacy of the Minnewanka Area Plan are made within the thesis. A simpler approach to visitor and resource management which maintains the essential criteria of the LAC approach is suggested. Measures for maintaining a high level of public participation and improving the accountability of the CPS in decision-making are proposed. The normative criteria based on carrying capacity management and meaningful public participation processes are presented as a model for facilitating integrated ecosystem management in area planning within national parks. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

In March 2002, The Nature Conservancy purchased a 9,000-acre tract of land on and near Warm Springs Mountain in Bath County, Virginia. The purpose of this paper is to examine community-based conservation strategies utilized by The Nature Conservancy in two well-established Virginia reserves to determine the effectiveness of those strategies in the protection of Warm Springs Mountain. The Conservancy's previous work on Virginia's Eastern Shore and in the Clinch Valley of southwest Virginia reveals the organization's transition from a strategy of mere land acquisition to the use of community-based conservation in an effort to involve local citizens and promote a proper balance between economics and the environment. The community-based conservation model developed by TNC on the Eastern Shore and utilized further in the Clinch Valley works well for ecoregions that fit a particular typology. The paper discusses the differences between that typology and the factors affecting the protection of Warm Springs Mountain. In addition, the paper outlines the lessons TNC learned from both positive and negative experiences in the two earlier preserves and proposes how these lessons can be applied to the Warm Springs Mountain Preserve. / Master of Urban and Regional Planning

Development of goals (desired future conditions (DFCs)) based on substantial public involvement is critical to the success of ecosystem management on public lands. I evaluated DFCs of riparian areas on national forests in the southern Appalachian mountains and evaluated a process for involving the public in development of DFCs for riparian areas on the Jefferson National Forest. First, I identified the major components, structures, and functions that are essential to riparian health through a literature review. Second, I examined how the key components, structures, and functions identified in the literature review were addressed in the DFCs and standards and guidelines for eight southeastern national forest management plans. In reviewing forest plans, I found a clear shift from emphasizing water quality in older forest plans to a more comprehensive incorporation of the values and functions of riparian areas in more recent plans. Riparian attributes included in DFCs varied widely and disparities between DFCs for forest plans and measurable criteria in the standards and guidelines often occurred. Finally, I designed, tested, and evaluated a public involvement process that identified public values for use in the development of DFCs for riparian areas on the Jefferson National Forest. I used a combination of alternative dispute resolution techniques and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), a participatory decision-making tool. I used surveys before and after the riparian meetings to evaluate the effectiveness of the public involvement process. Survey respondents generally were middle-aged, well-educated, high-income males who were long-time residents of the area. Riparian meeting participants indicated that the DFC for riparian areas on the JNF should strongly emphasize water quality and quantity, protection of riparian-dependent species and their habitats, and maintenance of the integrity of the relationship between riparian areas and the surrounding environment. Participants indicated recreational and commodity uses of riparian areas could occur as long as they did not negatively affect the other, more highly valued characteristics of riparian areas. Participants felt that the meetings were fair, that diverse interests were represented, that they had enough information to participate in the process, and that it was a wise use of their time. / Ph. D.

Since the 1980s, approaches to managing forest resources in the US and around the world have been shifting from the conventional sustained yield approach towards ecosystem management. Ecosystem management is a resource management paradigm that seeks to employ a collaborative and multidisciplinary approach to landscape scale conservation, as well as the integration of socio-economic and biophysical considerations with the overall goal of enhancing the health and resilience of coupled social-ecological systems. While the role of natural resource conflicts as drivers of the transition towards ecosystem management has received some research attention, the potential roles of ecosystem management in emerging natural resource conflicts have not been adequately explored. The effective implementation of ecosystem management requires adaptive governance mechanisms capable of integrating diverse stakeholder values and knowledge systems across scales. The absence of such institutional mechanisms could contribute to the emergence of wicked problems – a class of problems that defy clear definitions and definitive solutions. Using the Shawnee National Forest as a case study, the purpose of this qualitative study was to understand the role of natural resource conflicts in the transition towards ecosystem management, as well as the consequences of ecosystem management on emerging resource conflicts. The study also aimed to assess the extent to which the approaches and strategies used in managing natural resource conflicts meet the institutional requirements for managing wicked problems. In this regard, semi-structured interviews were conducted in 2021 among 24 key informants representing the US Forest Service and relevant stakeholder groups, such as environmental groups, recreationists, and local businesses. The interviews were preceded by a review of documents to understand the context of changing forest policies and evolving conflicts in the Shawnee National Forest since the 1980s. The data were analyzed with the NVivo software using a deductive coding approach. The results showed that the transition towards ecosystem-based forest management in the Shawnee National Forest was primarily triggered by conflicts between environmental groups and the US Forest Service over timber harvesting. Although the institutional framework for alternative dispute resolution existed at the time, these conflicts were largely managed through the national legal system. Since the transition to ecosystem management with the adoption of the 2006 Forest Plan, new conflicts have emerged, this time, mostly among various recreational groups. The lifting of the injunction on timber harvesting and the increased focus of the US Forest Service on active forest management as part of forest restoration efforts appear to have set the stage for the potential re-emergence of conflicts over timber harvesting. Regarding conflict management, the use of alternative conflict management techniques, such as negotiation and mediation have received increased attention since the adoption of the 2006 Forest Plan, although the effectiveness of these processes has been hampered by various institutional and attitudinal constraints, including conflicting procedural requirements, limited capacity, and lack of agency commitment towards meaningful stakeholder engagement. Meanwhile, the fear of lawsuits continues to shape forest management decisions on the Shawnee National Forest. These findings highlight the inadequacy of the national legal system in managing wicked problems and they highlight the need for investments in effective institutional mechanisms for conflict management, such as adaptive governance.

Article 1 As forest ownership continues to change, forestry must change to be relevant to its new constituency and client base. Market segmentation can help in this task. There is no such thing as an average forest owner. This study assessed the motivations and forest practices of 661 new owners of forested lands ranging in size between 2 and 50 acres. The study focused on rapidly growing counties in Virginia. Cluster analysis techniques were used to identify six market segments: Absentee Investors, Young Families, Forest Planners, Preservationists, Farmers, And Professionals. Only the smallest market segment (Absentee Investors, n = 26) reflects motivations and forest management interests that somewhat resemble "traditional" forest landowners. The results suggest that "lifestyle" concerns are the major motivations of these new owners and seemingly determine receptivity to professional forestry advice. This analysis helps understand these differently motivated segments and suggests possible marketing strategies professional foresters can use to "sell" forestry and active forest management. Article 2 Land managers increasingly are seeking to promote management of private forestland that transcends political and ownership boundaries. Descriptive analyses were used to characterize new landowners' intentions to participate in active management, both within individual property boundaries and in cooperation with neighboring landowners. The study also describes obstacles that these new owners perceive constrain their participation in active management. Further analysis explores potential differences in these variables related to amount of land owned, attitudes about private property rights, trust in forestry professionals, and attitudes about clearcutting and harvesting practices. The results suggest that private property rights are not an insurmountable problem to ecosystem management efforts. The forestry profession, however, seems to suffer from an invisibility problem among the population of new landowners. The very audience that ecosystem management programs target (owners of fewer than 20 acres of forestland) perceives itself to be least relevant to the message of cooperation. In fact, the biggest obstacle identified was that these new landowners have never thought about participating in active management, either within or across property boundaries. / Ph. D.

This research develops a plausible interpretation of NEPA's intent based on a thorough review and synthesis of NEPA documents and the literature. From this synthesis, NEPA goals and criteria are developed to evaluate a sample of Forest Service Forest Plans and their corresponding EISs. Next, ecosystem management is defined based on a review and synthesis of the literature. Ecosystem management evaluation goals and criteria are similarly developed to evaluate the Forest Plans and EISs. Based on NEPA and ecosystem management criteria, evaluation questions are formulated for assessing the Forest Plans in order: (1) to evaluate the extent the Forest Service has implemented ecosystem management; (2) to ascertain whether and to what degree Forest Service implementation of ecosystem management has moved its EIS process closer to NEPA's intent; and (3) to assess the extent ecosystem management implementation has influenced agency planning and decisionmaking processes. Throughout, the literature is used extensively to support conclusions reached on the basis of the case findings. Forest Service EISs and Forest Plans used for the case analyses are: 1) The 1986 George Washington National Forest Final EIS and Forest Plan (pre-ecosystem management) and the 1993 George Washington National Forest Final EIS and Revised Forest Plan (post-ecosystem management). 2) The 1985 Francis Marion National Forest Final EIS and Forest Plan (pre-ecosystem management) and the 1996 Francis Marion National Forest Final EIS and Revised Forest Plan (post-ecosystem management). Trends based on the post-ecosystem management evaluations that evidence the agency's implementation of ecosystem management principles include: maintenance of biodiversity of all species; adoption of measures to sustain ecosystem health; acknowledgment of ecosystem patterns and processes; increased integration of scientific research and technology; incorporation of adaptive management; and increased integration of ecological, economic and social considerations. There were several practices, however, in the post-ecosystem management cases that did not support ecosystem management principles: limited incorporation of different geologic or long-term time scales; continued delineation of boundaries along political lines; no integrative, interdisciplinary approach to planning; and no or minimal educational programs. Post-ecosystem management Forest Service practices that support NEPA's intent include: earlier identification of critical impacts; better management of critical impacts; increased integration of ecological information and a broader understanding of sustainability; increased provisions for monitoring and evaluation; better reflection of reviewing agency and public comments and concerns; more influence of environmental data on project decisions; increased consideration of unquantifiable issues; and better integration of ecological, economic and social considerations through a decisionmaking framework. There were several practices, however, in the post-ecosystem management cases that did not support NEPA's intent: EISs had a lower estimation of the magnitude or significance of impacts than the earlier EISs; no evidence supporting a broad, integrative, interdisciplinary approach to planning process; and no evidence of two-way, consensus building stakeholder involvement in the EIS process. Overall, the case analyses provide evidence that the Forest Service's EIS process had, in fact, moved closer to NEPA's intent. This improved output is primarily the result of the agency's incorporation of many of the principles of ecosystem management into its decisionmaking process. Although, NEPA did not figure into the integration of an ecosystem management approach into the Forest Service's decisionmaking process, this research showed that the goals of NEPA and ecosystem management are essentially the same. The agency came to advocate ecosystem management as the outcome of a voluntary decision and an incremental process to improve its overall planning and management process. Implementation of ecosystem management led to a more substantive response to NEPA's intent. Forest Service decisionmaking is a political process that involves balancing competing agency, private industry, and public interests. "Change agents" come from diverse sources-from within the agency's institutional structure (both top-down and bottom-up); from within the federal governmental framework (e.g., other agency policies, Congressional decisions, budgetary constraints); from outside the federal government (state and local governmental agencies, public and private interest groups); and from an uncertain and dynamic political and economic environment. Therefore, forest planning and its associated NEPA analyses must be considered a part of a never-ending and evolving process. Consequently, the Forest Service would do well to take an adaptive approach in its decisionmaking process-an approach compatible with ecosystem management. / Ph. D.

Shrimp mariculture expansion in developing countries has been criticized for its ecological destruction and the resulting social conflicts. In Ecuador, shrimp pond development particularly affects rural, coastal communities. This study addresses the environmental and social effects of shrimp farming in two Ecuadorian villages, Muisne and Bunche. Interview and survey responses indicate that locals have an overall negative view of the industry. In some instances, such as increased class marginalization through reduced access to subsistence collection areas, shrimp farming directly results in conflict. However, the data also demonstrates that ponds are only one of various stressors on mangrove ecosystems. Furthermore, mariculture provides benefits to the community, including increasing employment opportunities, the local economy, and shrimp availability. In spite of these benefits, local negative perception suggests modifications to existing regulations and educational programs are necessary to minimize impacts and help the community understand the multiple factors affecting their ecosystem and livelihoods. / by Mary C. Crider. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2012. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2012. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

A fundamental purpose of state-mandated growth management has been to infuse regional environmental concerns into local land use planning. Similarly, collaborative ecosystem planning efforts have attempted to encourage local communities to participate in regional planning efforts, and to adopt regional environmental goals and objectives into local land use plans. This paper presents results from a study of state-mandated local planning and collaborative regional planning, addressing in particular local ability to adopt and implement ecosystem planning initiatives for development management. I found that a state mandate not only achieves plans from communities that would not otherwise plan, but also the plans produced are of higher quality than plans made voluntarily without a mandate. However, while these plans generally acknowledge the need for regional resource protection, local plans are rarely go beyond stating support for State minimum resource protection rules. Conversely, I found that participation in a regional ecosystem planning effort had little effect on local land use policy. Within this context, key factors yielding more environmentally focused planning and implementation included local commitment to ecosystem planning, development pressure, and recent natural hazard impacts. Key factors steering communities away from ecosystem management included poor economic conditions, a desire to maintain local autonomy, and consultant-driven planning processes. Challenges for all communities include the ability to adopt policies that address biodiversity and regionally significant landscapes.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master in Environmental Science Johannesburg, 2015 / Quantifying ecosystem services of urban forests has become an important subject for the national and international ecological economics agenda. This is in the wake of offsetting anthropogenic emissions of CO2, while promoting urban habitability and sustainability. This study estimates above-ground tree biomass, carbon stored and the associated economic value and net economic value of carbon sequestrated by the tree planting project in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. Measurements of diameter at breast height (1.3 m) and tree height were done on all the individual trees that were recently planted (estimated to be about seven years) and other trees estimated to be over 25 years old in Petrus Molefe Park and Thokoza Park. A general allometric equation by Tietema (1993) was used to estimate above-ground biomass which was converted to carbon stocks. The economic value of carbon sequestrated was calculated at an equivalent price of R440.40 per tonne of carbon. The total above-ground biomass, carbon stored and economic value, and net economic value of the trees in Petrus Molefe Park was 7.45 tonnes, 3.35 tonnes, R1,475 and R-495,325, while the trees in Thokoza Park had 205.76 tonnes, 92.59 tonnes, R40,777 and R-312,023, respectively. The results indicated that the older trees in Thokoza Park had larger amounts of above-ground tree biomass, greater carbon storage and net economic value than the younger trees in Petrus Molefe Park. The economic values of carbon sequestrated were less than the cost of planting the trees, therefore the net economic value of carbon sequestrated were negative. The project is at an early, but promising stage, since the Greening Soweto Project provided a number of ecosystem services (i.e. beautifying the landscape, filtering air, recreation and amenity etc.), the performance of the project was evaluated by the extent to which it integrates the environmental and social benefits into the economic benefits and opportunities. Key words: Above-ground biomass, allometric equation, carbon stored, diameter at breast height, net economic value.