Giving grammar feedback to ESL writers is still debatable among researchers. While researchers like Truscott (1996) argue that grammar feedback does not help ESL students, others like Ferris (2001) argue that it does. Moreover, scholars debate whether the modes of feedback (written and oral versus computer) might affect student revisions. Research has been conducted on the effectiveness of different types and modes of feedback, but it is inconclusive and decontextualized. The present study addresses the effectiveness of different types and modes of feedback in the ESL writing classroom. Thirteen ESL students at a southwestern university participated, where they were required to write three papers. They were divided into two groups. Group 1 received rhetorical and grammatical feedback combined on the first paper, while Group 2 received only rhetorical feedback on that paper. On Paper 2, the order was reversed. For Paper 3, the students were re-grouped into two groups. Group 1 received rhetorical and grammar feedback combined through computer and Group 2 received it in the written mode. A mixed approach, quantitative and qualitative, was used. The frequencies of the errors and the corrections that the students made on each paper were calculated and tabulated. The students wrote journals and were interviewed regarding their reaction to the different types and modes of feedback. The study revealed rather a complex picture of how and why students use different types and modes of feedback. The students' backgrounds, their perception of writing, their writing and revision processes and their motivation affected their use of grammar feedback as well as computer feedback. Although the students did not make a lot of changes, error feedback drew their attention to their errors and made them more aware of these errors. Students did not use computer feedback successfully and they attributed that to their cultural background, attitudes, writing styles and the dynamics of computer feedback. This study suggests that training students on self-editing might help them in detecting and correcting their errors. It also suggests that we need to integrate computer feedback with other formats of feedback and to assess the students' reactions to using computer as well as the ways in which they use it. This assessment can be employed to adjust our pedagogical approaches.

Two of the mandatory English composition classes offered by the Writing Program at the University of Arizona are all-international (NNS) and mixed (NNS/NES) sections of composition. The NNS sections consist solely of international students who are non-native speakers of English. The NNS/NES sections, on the other hand, are open to both American and international students; therefore, they are mixes of non-native and native speakers of English. This study investigates classroom interaction patterns of 35 international and 9 American students enrolled in one NNS and one NNS/NES section of composition. Data was collected through classroom observations, Teacher's Journal, questionnaires, one-on-one interviews with the participants, and videotaped lectures, in-class small group work, and teacher-student conferences. The study attempts to identify common interaction patterns within five culture groups in the two classes: Asian Indian, Japanese, Chinese, Middle Easterner, and American. Classroom interaction patterns that reveal the students' home culture or interaction norms in educational institutions in their country are examined for this purpose. This study also compares classroom dynamics in the two sections to report whether mixing Americans with international students causes differences in the classroom atmosphere and the ease of communication among students. Finally, this study reports international students' perspectives about being in a mixed section with Americans, their thoughts and feelings about American culture and people, their adjustment difficulties in the United States and the classroom manifestations of these difficulties. The results of this study have pedagogical and methodological implications and suggestions. Pedagogically, the results and interpretations of this project can enable instructors to have a better understanding of the difficulties and interaction patterns of international students. This may lead to better teacher preparation and improved interaction between teachers and students in these types of classes. Methodologically, this study presents an application of sociolinguistic and ethnographic research in a pedagogical context. Interaction analysis in the classroom through the use of technologically-advanced data collection methods, such as video- and audio-taping, in collaboration with more common data collection techniques such as observations, questionnaires, and interviews may be inspiring to teacher-researchers who are looking for more consistency, credibility, and practicality in their research studies.

The present study investigated awareness of and attitudes toward language variation among college level learners of German as a foreign language. The first part, language samples of varieties of English and German, was presented to students with Likert-type/Osgood semantic differential response sheets to explore patterns of reactions indicative of students' attitudes. The second part, a questionnaire including demographic items, items on German language background, and special items on language variation in English and German, was designed to examine possible connections between awareness and attitude in English, in German, and across languages, as well as any potentially related demographic or linguistic background factors. The third part, interviews of volunteers, was included to provide qualitative insights into the web of life experiences, linguistic background, and awareness of and attitudes toward language variation. The underlying purpose of the study was the establishment of baseline data on awareness of and attitude toward language variation among college students with a view to incorporating these findings into language planning, teacher training, material development, and classroom practice. Variation awareness was found to be well-developed among students, especially in L1 where up to 90% declared having experienced variation as opposed to 70% for L2, German. Attitudes toward variation were quite positive in L1 and slightly negative in L2. Awareness and attitudes were found to correlate strongly both within the languages and across languages. Overall, students found it important to learn about variation in L1 and L2 (4 out of 5 on a scale from 1-5). According to interviewees, language variation has a strong cultural component and awareness thereof has the potential to enhance communication. Based on these findings, the following recommendations can be formulated. Students' rich linguistic background and sometimes dormant metalinguistic capacities should be taken advantage of. Curricula, materials, and teacher training modules reflecting a concern for language variation should be developed. Finally, collaboration between L1 and L2 instructors and/or programs could contribute to disentangling the web of variation awareness and attitudes, cognition and affect, acceptability, appropriacy and critical language use.

For this study of the children's narrative picture book, comparative content analysis was used on two sets of picture books in order to answer the following research question: "What are the characteristic codes and conventions of the postmodern narrative picture book?" The characteristic codes and conventions of the visual and written texts of a set of ten modern Caldecott picture books, published during each of the five decades between 1940 and 1985, were used as a baseline for a comparison of the codes and conventions of usage of eighteen postmodern picture books, published between 1975 and 2001 and cited as containing postmodern elements in the professional literature. Results of the analyses are described and interpreted in relation to existing literature within the theoretical framework that informed the study. The visual text categories of codes and conventions that were described and analyzed included: (1) the pictorial space; (2) the frame; and, (3) the viewing perspective and location of action within the pictorial space. Major findings for the postmodern picture book's visual text include: the permeability of the picture plane and the picture frame; the introduction of alternate virtual pictorial spaces and white space outside the pictorial space; increasing fragmentation of pictorial space; the unpredictable use of multiple points of view in conjunction with the middle-space, eye-level; and the use of intimate, close-up demand images. The categories of literary codes and conventions that were described and analyzed included: (1) the plot, (2) the narrative voice and point of view, and, (3) intertextuality. The primary circular plot in the written text has proliferated into multiple circular and linear plot structures in various combinations and problematic endings. Various narrator combinations and forms of focalization occur. The postmodern picture book is increasingly dialogic with references to pre-texts, other discourses and the inclusion of elements from the greater cultural context. Implications for authors, illustrators, educators and publishers are discussed and areas for further research are suggested.

Deaf children often lack signed language competence due to a lack of a rich linguistic environment in their homes during the critical language acquisition period. In order to facilitate language development in deaf children, signed language development programs should be staffed with appropriate personnel with a background in ASL acquisition. The American Sign Language (ASL) Specialist model has been proposed to meet the linguistic needs of deaf children. Results of the survey indicate that there are some positions in American deaf education that partially meet the proposed model. The objectives and responsibilities of those positions need to be refined so that the focus of the position is to facilitate linguistic, cognitive, social, and emotional development in deaf children prior to their learning English as a second language. This thesis also explores the possibility of establishing standards for a new profession of ASL Specialist.

The primary question addressed in this study was whether or not fourth graders who participated in Reading Workshop would show a greater improvement in reading comprehension and attitudes toward reading than fourth graders who did not participate in Reading Workshop, but received only basal-guided reading instruction. Two reading classes participated in the Reading Workshops and were used as experimental groups. One of the experimental groups was comprised of average ability readers, and the other of low ability readers. The control group contained both average and low ability readers in the same grouping. A significant difference between the experimental and the control group was found for attitudes toward reading and some aspects of reading comprehension in the average ability readers. The Reading Workshop group demonstrated significant positive effects in these areas. However, no significant differences between treatment groups were found when both low and average ability readers' scores were included in the analysis.

This is an analysis of the relationship between whole language, critical theory, and Milton Meltzer's documentary social histories, biographies, and one historical novel written for adolescent readers. Exemplified in my analysis are Meltzer's works on Christopher Columbus, the African-American experience, American history from the Colonial Era to the present, and the root causes of poverty, crime and social inequity. My premise is that Meltzer's works, as part of the oppositional tradition in children's literature, foster a counterhegemonic social analysis of history. The synergistic effect of Meltzer's works, critical theory, and whole language has the potential to create a new radical transformative educational paradigm. This paradigm will lead to the actualization of critical democracy in classrooms, schools, and society.

<p>Research on writing proficiency from elementary students through undergraduates is prevalent; however, few focused on students in graduate school. Few teacher education programs require specific coursework in writing for teacher certification. Yet, teacher educators express concern about teacher candidates' writing proficiencies. Writing may not be explicitly taught, such as in graduate school or doctoral coursework, because professors assume students already have these skills. Writing is something writers are always learning to do, yet scholarly writing is not included as a learning objective throughout the doctoral coursework at Sibley University, at the time of this study. Sibley University is the pseudonym used for the university referenced throughout the dissertation. The purpose of the exploratory research was to gain a deeper understanding of measurable and perceived changes throughout the dissertation writing process, and possibly uncover information that faculty could use to improve the doctoral students' writings. Data from the study will provide Sibley University's EdD program's structure comparative completion data for benchmarking purposes. </p><p> The study consisted of participants from Sibley University's May 2011 EdD graduates, five EdD students who defended their dissertation between May of 2011 and December of 2011, and four students who defended in spring of 2012, a convenient sample. Seventeen participants agreed to a 19-question, taped interview; one of the 17 failed to submit drafts of writings. An additional four participants submitted the required writings but, due to time constraints, were not interviewed. Seventeen participants were interviewed and 20 submitted writings for data analysis, with a gender breakdown of 85% female, and 15% male. </p><p> An ANOVA for the difference in the means was run on average characters per word, average words per paragraph, average sentences per paragraph, and percentage of passive sentences for each draft of the dissertation from the identified four data points. The steps used in analyzing the qualitative data gathered from the participants' retrospective interview transcripts included: highlighted chunks of significant information on each transcript, highlighted segment a two to three word description (code), and sorted all segments by meaning. The ANOVA analysis does not support a significant difference in average of variables analyzed when comparing documents, at the 95% confidence level. Yet, doctoral students perceived their writing had improved throughout the dissertation process. </p>

This study analyzed the level of proficiency in the minority language, Spanish, of students in the final years of a two-way immersion program at Mark Twain Elementary School in Houston, Texas. The level of proficiency of these two-way immersion students was gauged by comparing their oral narratives to those produced by the monolingual Spanish speakers in Eugenia Sebastian and Dan I. Slobin's 1994 study, "Development of Linguistic Forms: Spanish." The Spanish-dominant and native English-Spanish bilingual students in the program were found to have a high level of proficiency in Spanish. However, the English-dominant students in the program have not attained a native-like proficiency in Spanish. Thus, the program, while beneficial for both native and non-native Spanish speakers, is still somewhat lacking in its linguistic education of non-native Spanish speakers.

This dissertation analyzes patterns of communication strategy usage in the speech of 41 French immersion students in Toronto, Canada collected from informal student interviews with a native French speaker. The study contributes to a more complete understanding of communication strategies in French immersion by addressing such issues as the relative range and frequency of strategies; the interplay between strategies; the interaction between participants related to strategy usage; and the effect of extralinguistic factors on strategy usage (e.g. students' sex; age/grade; French language media exposure; time in a Francophone environment; stays with a Francophone family; home language). Strategies were coded and frequency counts obtained. The strategies identified included: L1-based (language switch and foreignization); L2-based (circumlocution, word coinage and approximation); sociopragmatic (appeal for assistance, message abandonment, and mime); and ambiguous/potentially L3-based strategies. While students use a range of strategies, the tendency is to rely on language switch. Rather than risk inaccuracy in the TL, students prefer to be economical and, assuming that the interviewer is bilingual, are confident that she will understand the strategy. Appeals for assistance from the interviewer are also frequent, demonstrating that the presence of an interlocutor plays an essential role in how students deal with lexical problems. The emergence of a strategy continuum provided support for the notion that some strategies are riskier than others by showing that frequency and perceived level of risk associated with that strategy is related to the amount of follow-up that a strategy receives. Follow-up strategies occur (i) for the purpose of correcting a prior usage; (ii) due to awareness of French/English translation difficulties; (iii) due to uncertainties about TL usage; and/or (iv) as means to treat the interview as a learning experience or to meet expectations of speaking French during the interview. Statistical analyses revealed that L1-based, sociopragmatic, and ambiguous/potential L3-based strategies are correlated with some of the social factors examined, including extracurricular exposure to French and age/grade, but not students' sex. It is concluded that in spite of the non-conventional lexical choices in students' TL messages, they are still comprehensible (i.e., meaningful) to the interlocutor and communication goals are achieved successfully.