This investigation focused on describing cognition in performance judgment of teaching in higher education. The influence of appraisal purpose and cue dimensionality was observed on subjective importance and utilization of information. Information integration strategies were examined in relation to purpose and cognitive complexity. Exploratory analysis focused on the measurement of good instructor schema profiles, and on the effect of cognitive complexity on halo in performance ratings. Seventy subjects were assigned randomly to two purpose conditions in the experiment: summative and formative judgment. Two questionnaires, two rating tasks, and a Role Construct Repertory grid were adminstered for data collection. The data were analyzed through regression modeling at the individual level and via analysis of variance procedures at the group level. The results indicate that the impact of cue dimensions is strong on subjective importance and utilization of information but varies with the purpose of appraisal. Raters valued and utilized trait information more than behavior information in evaluation required for personnel decisions. Where evaluation was feedback on the quality of teaching and expressed the need for improvement, raters utilized behavior information more than trait information. This pattern of information utilization suggests that saliency of information in performance judgment is a function of purpose and cue dimensionality, and that appraisal purpose has an effect on raters' cognition through schematic processing. The results also show that the use of varied strategies in mentally integrating dimensions of information is affected by raters' cognitive complexity. Although subjects mainly used compensatory strategies, the complex individuals used noncompensatory strategies as well. Exploratory analysis shows that cognitive complexity also affects halo in rating judgments. The findings seem to support the validity of student rating of instructors, and the utility of cognitive complexity construct in understanding performance judgment. It is suggested that the influence of schematic processing and cue saliency be addressed in further theorizing and research on performance judgment. As well, the inclusion of purpose of judgment and developmental constructs, such as cognitive complexity, is recommended for theorizing and research on judgment processes. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

Although language is a medium of learning, most educational institutions typically teach and therefore evaluate language separately from content. In second language contexts, recent attention has been given to language/content integration through content-based language instruction. Yet, questions of integrative evaluation (evaluating language and content as one) remain uncertain and difficult. This inquiry explores difficulties invoked when teachers engage in practices of integrative evaluation of English language learners' writing at an international college for Japanese nationals in Canada. Are these difficulties technical problems? Technical rationality has been critiqued by a number of thinkers. Those interested in action research practices, contrast technical rationality with what they call reflective rationality and argue for contextualizing, rather than simplifying, difficult situations. Some with hermeneutic interests argue for an attunement to, rather than concealment of, difficulties of life in the classroom. Others interested in writing instruction, are critical of conventional approaches to writing pedagogy as reductionistic and deterministic. There are a number of instances of difficulty in teachers' integrative evaluation practices. Prior to agreeing on a prompt, many teachers explore texts as interpretive, social literacy but, in their uncertainty of how to mark such a text, they return to a question for which there is a 'correct' and 'controlled' response. Once the prompt and evaluative criteria are established, discordant orientations to evaluation, literacy, and language/content integration complicate teachers' uncertainty. For example, teachers sometimes acknowledge functional views of language/content integration, yet they are vague and uncertain about how to mark in an integrated way. When teachers read texts prior to judgment, they comment that the texts are difficult to interpret and then impose their own 'straightforward' readings on the texts to reduce and simplify the difficulties. These instances raise serious concerns in practices of evaluation, literacy and language/content integration, especially when technical forms of evaluation are paradoxically aligned with social and integrated texts. A turn to hermeneutics troubles a technical hold and invites further inquiry into tensioned moments of integrative evaluation as difficult, living practices. / Education, Faculty of / Language and Literacy Education (LLED), Department of / Graduate

M.Ed. (Education Management) / Communication being one of the most important activities of the school principal, is important for the effective functioning of the teacher evaluation system. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the relation between communication and the evaluation system. In chapter 1 the concepts standards, criteria, communication and evaluation system are clarified. The problems relating to the effective functioning of the system are discussed. The teachers are not explicitly informed of the aims of the system, as well as the standards and criteria which are to be applied. This inadequate communication causes the evaluation system as well as effective education to suffer. The aim of this study is thus: *to explain and clarify the criteria and standards applicable to the teacher evaluation system, * to identify the essential communication; and characteristics of transparent * to identify evaluating techniques the school principal may use to create a positive inclination towards the evaluation system. Chapter 2 is a discussion of the criteria used in the present system. It is further important to consider the numerous variables influencing the evaluation process. It is of utmost importance for the evaluator (school principal) to be familiar with all the facets of the system. It is his task to motivate his staff to participate with a positive attitude. For the teacher it is, however, just as important to receive explanations concerning the evaluation scales, categories and instruments against which he or she is to be evaluated. In chapter 3 the characteristics of communication are described. This chapter serves as an aid to the school principal since the success of the total evaluation system rests on efficient and transparent communication. The principles of effective communication, communication models and the various means of communicating are described. Another important issue are the causes of defective or poor communication. In conclusion clinical management is discussed as a means whereby communication obstructions may be reduced. Possible evaluation techniques are described in chapter 4. The preconditions for the achievement of evaluation objectives as well as the process itself are dealt with. It is important for the principal to plan and prepare the evaluation process so that the persons involved receive the necessary information and explanations. The actual evaluation can then take place. The most important part of the evaluation process still lies ahead, but unfortunately, in many schools, this never occurs. It is of great importance to the teachers to receive feedback. The positive as well as the negative results must be available so that the teacher knows in which areas improvements are necessary. It is also expected that the school principal provides the necessary guidance for training and development. The ultimate goal of teacher evaluation is the achievement of more effective education and the use of transparent communication by the headmaster to clarify the evaluation process could serve as a catalyst towards this end.

<p> In light of earlier research pertaining to empathy, it is reasonable to believe that certain teachers feel empathic toward students in remedial classrooms. It is also evident that teacher empathy is something that students relish. However, a perceived lack of teacher empathy among students in remedial classes is a concern. The general problem addressed in the study was the effect of teachers&rsquo; lack of empathy on remedial college students&rsquo; perceptions of teacher&ndash;student conflict. The specific problem addressed in the study was the limited research on the impact of teachers&rsquo; empathy on remedial students&rsquo; perceptions. The purposes of the study were to understand remedial students&rsquo; perceptions of teachers&rsquo; empathy and to assess the perceived impact of lack of teacher empathy on teacher&ndash;student conflict. Participants consisted of 10 students enrolled at Cuyahoga Community College remedial English classes in Cleveland, Ohio. The phenomenological study explored the lived experiences and perceptions of these students in developmental/remedial classes. Students participated in face-to-face recorded interviews. Data were analyzed using NVivo software. Four main themes and several subthemes emerged from the data. Recommendations were offered to help facilitate resolution of teacher&ndash;student conflicts that may emerge out of perceived lack of teacher empathy.</p>

<p> The purpose of the current study was to test the theory of action hypothesized for the Mathematics Formative Assessment System (MFAS) based on results from a large-scale randomized field trial. Using a multilevel structural equation modeling analytic approach with multiple latent response variables decomposed across student, teacher, and school levels of clustering, the current study found evidence of effects of MFAS that were consistent with the MFAS theory of action. First, assignment to the treatment condition was associated with higher mean student mathematics performance and a higher prevalence of small group instruction compared to schools assigned to the control condition&mdash;both of which are outcomes hypothesized to result from MFAS use. Also, a positive association between teacher-level mathematics knowledge for teaching and student mathematics performance was found in the current study, which is consistent with the interrelation of constructs specified in the MFAS theory of action. However, evidence of the particular linkages of MFAS use&rarr;teacher knowledge&rarr;classroom practice&rarr;student mathematics performance and the putative cascade of effects that would substantiate the mechanisms of change posited in the MFAS theory of action were not detected in the current study. Thus, positive effects of MFAS on teacher and student outcomes were substantiated; however, as to how the effects of MFAS on teachers transfer to improved outcomes for students remains to be empirically demonstrated. Based on my review of the results from the current study and consideration of the literature on formative assessment as it relates to the design of MFAS tasks and rubrics, I discuss a proposed modification to the theory of action that specifies the addition of a direct path from MFAS use to student mathematics performance, in addition to the indirect path currently specified.</p>

The growing Latino/a population is generating an influx of students with different educational needs into U.S. public schools. As a result, educators are faced with the challenge of teaching basic skills to second-language learners (SLL) while simultaneously promoting the development of their second language. Despite the fact that SLL from Spanish-speaking backgrounds are about twice as likely as non-Hispanic whites to be reading below average for their age (Moss & Puma, 1995), research on second-language children's reading is limited in scope and quantity. The limited research has indicated that the reading rate of SLL might be slower than that of native-English speakers (Geva, Wade-Woolley, & Shaney, 1997; Mace-Matluck, 1979). This study was conducted with the purpose of (a) examining SLL weekly rates of growth (slopes) in reading, (b) comparing these rates to those demonstrated by of native-English speakers in a study conducted by Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Walz, and Germann (1993), and (c) understanding whether certain factors typically discussed in the educational literature on SLL contribute to positive slopes in reading. The sample was composed of SLL in second through fourth grade (n = 69) attending two urban elementary schools in Western Massachusetts. Grade-level Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) English reading probes were administered to children once a week for 12-weeks. A z-test for independent samples was used to compare slopes found in the present study and those found by Fuchs et al. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the degree of influence of proficiency in English and/or Spanish, age, Spanish reading fluency, and language(s) used for reading instruction on weekly outcomes in reading. Both descriptive and correlational research methods were used to answer these questions. The pattern of reading growth across grades identified in the present study suggests that SLL make the most dramatic reading growth in the later grades (i.e., fourth grade). Proficiency in English and/or Spanish, age, Spanish reading fluency, and language(s) used for reading instruction together explained only 18% of the variance of the slopes. Hypothesis regarding explanations for these results, limitations to the study and future research directions are discussed.

The Massachusetts Department of Secondary and Elementary Education (DESE) has implemented an Educator Evaluation Framework that requires MCAS scores be used as a significant indicator of teacher effectiveness when available. This decision has implications for thousands of Massachusetts public school teachers. To date, DESE has not provided evidence to support the validity of using MCAS scores to make interpretations about teacher effectiveness. A review of the literature reveals much variation in the degree to which teachers use state-adopted content standards to plan instruction. The findings in the literature warrant investigation into teacher practice among Massachusetts public school teachers. The research questions for this study will be: 1.) Are there variations in the degree to which Massachusetts public school teachers use the Curriculum Frameworks to plan Math instruction?; and 2.) Is MCAS as an instrument sensitive enough to reflect variations in teacher practice in the student's scores? A survey of Massachusetts public school principals and Math teachers, grades three through eight, investigated the research questions. Survey results revealed that Massachusetts teachers use the Curriculum Frameworks to plan instruction to varying degrees. Survey results also suggest a lack of relationship between teacher practice related to the use of the Curriculum Frameworks and student MCAS scores. These findings suggest MCAS scores may not be an appropriate indicator of teacher effectiveness; however, there are limitations to the study that require further investigation into these questions.

The Early Numeracy Skill Indicators (ENSIs) are a set of subtests designed to sample the early mathematical behaviors of kindergarten students. Early intervention and prevention-oriented practices in assessment are timely and fundamental components important to educators and school psychologists alike, and are aimed at identifying at-risk students who will likely benefit from strategic and intensive instructional support. These practices are well developed in the academic area of early literacy and used to inform education at numerous levels. Similar large scale educational achievement problems have been noted by mathematical scholars and educators, which have intracultural and cross national implications. Despite these caveats, a paucity of early assessment practices necessary to a prevention-oriented practice are currently available to schools interested in early mathematics assessment to drive instruction. Given the success of early literacy assessment techniques developed from a paradigm of curriculum-based assessment (CBA), the primary purpose of the current research is to develop the ENSIs as dynamic measures of critical early mathematical skills. Longitudinal correlational analysis was the primary research design, conducted over a 26-week period. As such, the measures were examined in terms of internal consistency and reliability across time. Concurrent and predictive validation of the ENSIs with the Test of Early Mathematics Ability (TEMA-3) and teacher ratings of curricular mastery was undertaken. In addition to hypotheses regarding the reliability and validity of these measures, analyses of diagnostic accuracy was completed using Relative Operating Characteristic (ROC) techniques popular in multiple scientific fields dealing with high-stakes decision making. Inclusive participants over the course of the study were 64 kindergarten children from three elementary schools in a moderate sized post-industrial northwestern Massachusetts city. Results support the conclusion that selected subtests of the ENSIs are reliable, valid, and diagnostically accurate, demonstrating the potential for utility in the school community and contributing to further scientific research. Implications for future practice regard the use of these measures to prevent later mathematics failure and enhance student competency. Further implications and limitations are discussed.

The current approach to identifying specific reading disability is plagued with problems. The most common diagnostic procedure, called the IQ-achievement discrepancy, involves establishing that a student's reading performance on standardized achievement tests is significantly below what would be expected from his/her IQ. This approach is unreliable with respect to diagnosis and uninformative with respect to prescriptives for remediation. An approach is needed that can provide reliable diagnosis and can indicate the deficient skills that could be targeted for remediation. The purpose of the present research was to evaluate alternatives to the IQ-reading discrepancy for identifying reading disabled college students. Specifically, the question was whether reading disabled and nondisabled college students could be differentiated using the Computer-based Academic Assessment System (CAAS) and a measure of listening and reading comprehension called the Sentence Verification Technique. College students recruited from Disabled Students Services and nondisabled introductory psychology students at the same college were given SVT tests and elementary-level and adult-level CAAS reading batteries. After all data was collected and prior to data analysis, students in the disabled sample were classified as having a reading disability, generalized learning disability, or other disabilities on the basis of various sources of information. The requirements of a diagnostic technique for identifying reading disability were used as a framework for evaluating SVT and CAAS techniques. Multivariate analyses of variance were used to evaluate each of the techniques alone, and discriminant analyses were used to evaluate the techniques in combination in meeting the following requirements: (1) differentiating disabled from nondisabled students, (2) differentiating reading disabled students from nondisabled students and from students with other disabilities, (3) differentiating among disabled students with different types of problems, and (4) identifying individual patterns of performance that indicate a reading disability. Results suggested that SVT and CAAS techniques were generally able to make the above distinctions with the CAAS technique appearing to be more effective. Reasons for why SVT may have been less successful are provided in the discussion.

Recent research in social psychology has suggested that negative racial stereotypes can have a negative effect on student academic achievement. Although such research has provided experimental evidence on the effect of stereotypes in a variety of different testing contexts, there has been limited research on the effect of racial stereotypes in writing assessments. The purpose of this study was to understand how stereotypes about racially-ordered performance shape students' expectations about the context and consequences of a Placement Exam. The theoretical orientation for this project drew upon Claude Steele's research on stereotype threat, Norman Fairclough's approach to Critical Discourses Analysis, and rhetorical analysis. First-year college students taking a Writing Placement Exam were given a survey that included questions about racial stereotypes and audience expectations. Of the 38% of students who completed the survey (n=1,195), 38 students were finally selected to be interviewed. The results of this research suggest that racial stereotypes do have an impact on students' expectations of writing assessment contexts. Students of color, in particular, expected that their writing performance would be read along racial lines and that they might be graded according to racial expectations for performance. The results also showed that approximately 70% of students in every racial group expected readers to be white. In interviews students said that they based their expectations on racial demographics, stereotypes about college professors, and past educational experiences in English classes. An analysis of student essays was then conducted to determine if students' expectations about stereotypes and readership were evidenced in their writing. A discourse analysis revealed that the primary identity adopted in student essays on the exam prompt "patriotism" was a moderate, unraced American identity, i.e., a cohesive "us." A rhetorical analysis of three essays, written by students who strongly felt that their essays would be graded differently if the reader knew their race, revealed that students used various rhetorical moves to anticipate a potentially hostile audience. The results of this research suggest that racial stereotypes can have an effect in writing assessments and how students rhetorically approach writing assessments. The findings suggest new considerations in test design, test use, classroom interventions, and institutional change.