This thesis analyses three aspects of the link between a woman’s educational trajectory and her childbearing behaviour. Special attention is paid to educational field as a further dimension of education next to educational enrolment and educational level. It is argued that this dimension has to be taken into account to fully understand the complex interplay between women’s educational careers and fertility. The empirical investigations are based on Swedish register data for the period 1990 to 2004 and carried out by means of event history analyses. Regarding the impact of women’s education on fertility, this study confirms that educational enrolment generally impedes childbearing. Further, in addition to differences in first, second and third birth risks among women with different levels of education, the analyses reveal strong variations in the fertility behaviour of women with different types of education. To investigate the impact of fertility on women’s educational careers, this study examines how becoming a mother influences a woman’s risk to pursue further training in a different field of education. The effect of motherhood on the risk of educational change varies strongly depending on the field Swedish women initially were trained in. Especially women with degrees in fields in which it is difficult to get established in the labour market are found to have a high risk of educational change. For these women giving birth to a child appears to lead them to strive for further training in a field that offers more stable and family friendly employment prospects. Finally, the study explores the impact of unobserved factors on education and fertility. By estimating a simultaneous hazard equation for a woman’s childbearing behaviour and her choice of educational field, it is shown that women’s decisions about education and fertility are correlated due to the existence of unobserved determinants that simultaneously influence both life domains.

In this thesis I examine the impact of the educational background of Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) on firm performance of listed firms in the Stockholm stock exchange. This area of research is important given that researchers in the area of behavioral finance and in management argue that CEO characteristics such as educational orientation, age and functional background influence the way business problems are perceived and the decision making process. The numerous and growing challenges which businesses face, particularly in the area of operations,cost-cutting and production efficiency makes the need to examine how CEO educational background could be beneficial for firm performance very relevant. Particular attention is on listed firms in the manufacturing, oil and gas, energy sector characterized by low instability (turbulence) and the IT industry characterized by rapid growth and high turbulence. Educational background information for 100 CEOs is examined between 2008-2010. The information gathered from the annual reports of these companies, shows that the educational path way for most CEOs in these industries has been an engineering degree. The regression analysis on CEO educational background and firm performance show no significant relationship. More specifically the regression analysis show no support for the assertion that firms controlled by CEOs with an educational background in engineering have a firm performance advantage or outperformed firms controlled by CEOs with other backgrounds such as law ,marketing and finance. In addition, the finding shows no significant relationship between CEO educational level (undergraduate or postgraduate) and firm performance. The analysis thus showed no support for the claim that firms controlled by CEO with a higher level of education (postgraduate degree) had a superior firm performance over firms controlled by a CEO who had an undergraduate degree.

The research basis of this study are analyzed from the data abstracted from ¡§Annual Financial Report¡¨ and ¡§Corporate Annual Report¡¨ of public-listed corporations in financial industry in Taiwan for consecutive three years, with a total of 51. This research includes topics of the impact on organizational performance by involvement levels of training, the progressive effect, and possible obstacles of impacting organizational performance by two organizational characteristics, namely staff educational level and establishment of exclusive training unit. The result of the research is summarized below 1.Overall speaking, training has positive impact and progressive effect on organizational performance. The result shows positive relevance to training budget per human capital regardless of preceding or present year, in compliance of perspectives of long-term training effect. What worthwhile of reference is that time is crucial for skill acquisition and talent development. With consideration of staff career development plan, setting up life-time training plans in different stages can not only encourage staff to grow with corporations but also fully develop long-term training effect. 2.The higher staff educational level is, the more obvious training effect is for a corporation. Staff with higher educational level symbolizes stronger learning capabilities, and stronger tendency to accept training enhances the training efficiency. The result indicates that the higher staff educational level is, the greater impact on organizational performance is. 3.A broader research perspective shall be sought to explore the influence on training effect by setting up exclusive training unit. This research applies the methodology of setting up exclusive training unit to symbolize the training quality. Regression analysis indicates setting up such unit has little obstacles in training effect. The possible assumption goes to vast variety of reasons to influence training quality instead of any single organizational factor.

The purpose of this study is to compare black children with white children to determine if a significant difference exists between their scores on the subtests of the ITPA.

The Relationship between Parental Educational Level and Children’s Cognitive Functioning This study investigated the relationship between a child’s measured intelligence and the educational level of that child’s mother and/or father. Correlations between parental educational level and children’s cognitive functioning as measured by a conventional South African intelligence scale, were examined. The instrument used to measure the children’s cognitive functioning in this study was the Senior South African Individual Scale-Revised (SSAIS-R). The children’s scaled scores were obtained from existing results on the SSAISR. Parental educational levels were obtained from existing intake questionnaires, which parents completed before their children were assessed on the SSAIS-R at the Centre for Psychological Services and Career Development (PsyCaD). Correlational analysis was used to investigate the relationship between the two variables of interest. The sample consisted of 23 cases. All of the children were aged between 8 and 10, spoke either English or Afrikaans as a first language, and belonged to the White, Indian or Coloured population groups. The results indicated that maternal level of education was positively and moderately correlated with children’s cognitive functioning. Paternal educational level and children’s cognitive functioning were found to have no correlation or to be inversely correlated. The correlation results between paternal level of education and children’s cognitive functioning should be interpreted with caution since the sample size was very small. Thus, the results are not statistically significant.

Abstract Objectives The relationship between work-life conflict and self-rated health is widely researched but whether the association differs according to educational level has received less attention. This study investigated the association of work-life conflict with self-rated health taking gender, education, working conditions and socio-demographic characteristics into account. Methods The cross-sectional data came from the ELSA-Brasil (2008-2010), a cohort study of civil servants 35-74 years old from six states of Brazil. Complete information was available for 12121 individuals (48% men). Work-life conflict was measured by four indicators representing different aspects, i.e. work-to-family time-based, work-to-family strain-based, family-to-work and lack of leisure time. Multiple logistic regression analyses stratified by gender and educational level were performed. Results More frequent work-life conflict was associated with poor self-rated health in all the indicators. The magnitude of association was greater for women and the same occurred with the higher educated respondents. An exception is in the family-to-work indicators where it affected lower educated women more than higher educated. Conclusions There is an association between work-life conflict and self-rated health and it differs according to work-life conflict indicator. Stratifying by gender and educational level presents an important addition to research in the field of work-life conflict.

O século XX foi marcado por significativa transformação social, que se refletiu em rápido aumento da expectativa de vida da população mundial. Nesse contexto, é cada vez mais significativa a parcela de mulheres que atingem a menopausa. Doenças cardiovasculares, que representam a principal causa de morte entre os adultos, e a osteoporose, apresentam uma relação nítida com a antecipação da menopausa, isto é, aquela que ocorre abaixo da média esperada para uma população. As pesquisas na área, antes praticamente relacionadas ao tratamento dos efeitos causados pelo climatério, se voltam cada vez mais para entender como os hábitos ou estilos de vida podem influenciar a fisiologia ovariana e, conseqüentemente, alterar o momento da menopausa. A relação com alguns destes hábitos, como o fumo, já apresenta forte embasamento na literatura. Entretanto, a correlação com o nível socioeconômico, seja pelas dificuldades de se medir adequadamente esse constructo, ou talvez pela quantidade insuficiente de trabalhos de qualidade, não se apresenta de forma tão evidente. O nível de escolaridade, considerado um dos melhores indicadores do nível socioeconômico, tanto pela maior facilidade de obtenção da informação, como pelo já demonstrado grau de associação com diversos desfechos em saúde, foi avaliado nesta revisão sistemática como fator de exposição para a antecipação da idade da menopausa. Este trabalho se alinha com a crescente tendência de se entender como os determinantes sociais podem influenciar nos desfechos em saúde, e de se buscar estratégias eficazes em prol da diminuição das desigualdades em saúde. A estratégia de busca eletrônica foi desenvolvida de forma específica para as diferentes bases (MEDLINE [PubMed] e LILACS) e através de consulta a referências cruzadas. Somente foram incluídos estudos observacionais pela natureza da questão, já que não seria possível, neste caso, a realização de estudos experimentais. Após a identificação inicial de 776 artigos, 40 deles foram selecionados para apreciação do texto completo. No final, esta revisão sistemática englobou 30 artigos, relatando resultados de 32 estudos. Como resultado, verificou-se que estudos que não demonstram associação significativa do nível de educação com a idade da menopausa formaram a maioria da amostra. A forma como nível de escolaridade foi medida e a metodologia para comparação entre os estratos se mostraram largamente heterogêneas. Não se encontraram evidências inequívocas sobre a existência de associação entre o nível de escolaridade e a idade da menopausa através desta revisão. / The 20th century was marked by significant social changes that reflected on a fast increase of life expectancy of the worldwide population. In this context, the portion of women that attain menopause is increasingly more significant. Cardiovascular diseases, that represent the main cause of death among adults, and osteoporosis, present a clear relation with the anticipation of menopause, that is, that one that occurs below the expected average to a certain population. Initially, studies in this area were practically restricted to treatment of effects caused by the climateric period. Currently, they are more and more concerned to understand how habits or life styles can influence the ovarian physiology and, consequently, how they can alter the age at menopause. Association with some of these habits, such as smoking tobacco, already presents a strong foundation in the literature. However, the correlation with socioeconomic level, maybe due to difficulties concerning how to measure this concept properly or to the insufficient amount of qualified papers, is not so clearly presented. Educational level, considered as one of the best socioeconomic indicators, both due to the greater facility to obtain information and already the demonstrated degree of association with several outcomes in health, was evaluated in this systematic review as an exposure factor to the anticipation of the age at menopause. This work is lined up an increasing tendency to understand how social determinants can influence health outcomes and how effective strategies could be built to decrease health inequalities. The strategy of electronic search was developed in a specific way to different basis considered (Medline [PubMed] and Lilacs) and complemented with cross-reference search. Only observational studies were included by the nature of the question, since it would not be possible, in this case, to perform experimental studies. After initial identification of 776 articles, in which 40 out of them were selected for evaluation of the complete text. In the end, our systematic review included 30 articles, giving an account of 32 studies. As a result of the review, it was noticed that studies not showing a significant association between educational level and the age at menopause formed the most part of the sample. The way by which the educational level was measured as well as the methods used for comparing strata, were largely heterogeneous, This review did not find strong evidences about the existence of an association between educational level and age at menopause.

O século XX foi marcado por significativa transformação social, que se refletiu em rápido aumento da expectativa de vida da população mundial. Nesse contexto, é cada vez mais significativa a parcela de mulheres que atingem a menopausa. Doenças cardiovasculares, que representam a principal causa de morte entre os adultos, e a osteoporose, apresentam uma relação nítida com a antecipação da menopausa, isto é, aquela que ocorre abaixo da média esperada para uma população. As pesquisas na área, antes praticamente relacionadas ao tratamento dos efeitos causados pelo climatério, se voltam cada vez mais para entender como os hábitos ou estilos de vida podem influenciar a fisiologia ovariana e, conseqüentemente, alterar o momento da menopausa. A relação com alguns destes hábitos, como o fumo, já apresenta forte embasamento na literatura. Entretanto, a correlação com o nível socioeconômico, seja pelas dificuldades de se medir adequadamente esse constructo, ou talvez pela quantidade insuficiente de trabalhos de qualidade, não se apresenta de forma tão evidente. O nível de escolaridade, considerado um dos melhores indicadores do nível socioeconômico, tanto pela maior facilidade de obtenção da informação, como pelo já demonstrado grau de associação com diversos desfechos em saúde, foi avaliado nesta revisão sistemática como fator de exposição para a antecipação da idade da menopausa. Este trabalho se alinha com a crescente tendência de se entender como os determinantes sociais podem influenciar nos desfechos em saúde, e de se buscar estratégias eficazes em prol da diminuição das desigualdades em saúde. A estratégia de busca eletrônica foi desenvolvida de forma específica para as diferentes bases (MEDLINE [PubMed] e LILACS) e através de consulta a referências cruzadas. Somente foram incluídos estudos observacionais pela natureza da questão, já que não seria possível, neste caso, a realização de estudos experimentais. Após a identificação inicial de 776 artigos, 40 deles foram selecionados para apreciação do texto completo. No final, esta revisão sistemática englobou 30 artigos, relatando resultados de 32 estudos. Como resultado, verificou-se que estudos que não demonstram associação significativa do nível de educação com a idade da menopausa formaram a maioria da amostra. A forma como nível de escolaridade foi medida e a metodologia para comparação entre os estratos se mostraram largamente heterogêneas. Não se encontraram evidências inequívocas sobre a existência de associação entre o nível de escolaridade e a idade da menopausa através desta revisão. / The 20th century was marked by significant social changes that reflected on a fast increase of life expectancy of the worldwide population. In this context, the portion of women that attain menopause is increasingly more significant. Cardiovascular diseases, that represent the main cause of death among adults, and osteoporosis, present a clear relation with the anticipation of menopause, that is, that one that occurs below the expected average to a certain population. Initially, studies in this area were practically restricted to treatment of effects caused by the climateric period. Currently, they are more and more concerned to understand how habits or life styles can influence the ovarian physiology and, consequently, how they can alter the age at menopause. Association with some of these habits, such as smoking tobacco, already presents a strong foundation in the literature. However, the correlation with socioeconomic level, maybe due to difficulties concerning how to measure this concept properly or to the insufficient amount of qualified papers, is not so clearly presented. Educational level, considered as one of the best socioeconomic indicators, both due to the greater facility to obtain information and already the demonstrated degree of association with several outcomes in health, was evaluated in this systematic review as an exposure factor to the anticipation of the age at menopause. This work is lined up an increasing tendency to understand how social determinants can influence health outcomes and how effective strategies could be built to decrease health inequalities. The strategy of electronic search was developed in a specific way to different basis considered (Medline [PubMed] and Lilacs) and complemented with cross-reference search. Only observational studies were included by the nature of the question, since it would not be possible, in this case, to perform experimental studies. After initial identification of 776 articles, in which 40 out of them were selected for evaluation of the complete text. In the end, our systematic review included 30 articles, giving an account of 32 studies. As a result of the review, it was noticed that studies not showing a significant association between educational level and the age at menopause formed the most part of the sample. The way by which the educational level was measured as well as the methods used for comparing strata, were largely heterogeneous, This review did not find strong evidences about the existence of an association between educational level and age at menopause.

Some people experience cumulative advantages or disadvantages at birth and during their lifespan that determine future life course outcomes. Health disparities and systemic inequity can define a negative trajectory for some minority and underserved communities. Without intervention, such inequity can spiral and eventually affect more and more areas of an older person's life, much like cumulative disadvantages. This research proposes that older adults can improve their situation through targeted support factors that systematically improve lifespan areas. Eventually, more adults can experience the cumulative advantage effect as life progresses. The dissertation consists of a systematic literature review to evaluate literature that isolates degree-level education as a predictor of successful retirement transition planning. This foundational information is used as a basis for identifying constructs in two follow-on studies of the longitudinal National Health and Aging Trends Study (NHATS) Wave 9 public dataset. We explore factors supporting readiness for retirement and retirement transition in later life using data of older adults aged 65+. Multiple regression, exploratory factor analysis, and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) are used to gain a multi-angle view. The results showed that degree-level education influences higher salaries, improved healthcare access, and financial literacy. In addition, old age has an increased risk of physical pain and chronic diseases that affect activities of daily living and independence in retirement, regardless of financial resources. Declining health can lead to social isolation and depression for older adults.

Syfte: Tidigare forskning har undersökt sambandet mellan empowerment och arbetstillfredsställelse och funnit att empowerment ökar arbetstillfredsställelsen. Däremot saknas forskning om hur sambandet skiljer sig åt beroende på utbildningsnivåer. Syftet är att förklara om variabeln utbildningsnivå påverkar upplevd empowerment och arbetstillfredsställelse hos medarbetare i företag där styrfilosofin präglas av empowerment.   Metod: Studien utgår från en kvantitativ forskningsstrategi och en deduktiv forskningsansats. Den empiriska datainsamlingen har genomförts med en enkätundersökning där målpopulationen är företag som präglas av empowerment. Studiens urval var ändamålsenligt och bestod av totalt 503 respondenter från 31 företag. Den insamlade datan analyserades i Jamovi genom deskriptiv statistik, bivariat korrelationsanalys, och faktoranalys. SEM-analyser genomfördes sedan i SmartPLS 3. Resultatet redovisades, analyserades och utmynnade sedan till en slutsats.   Resultat & slutsats: Studiens resultat visar att det finns en skillnad mellan en hög och en låg utbildningsnivå. Respondenterna med en hög utbildningsnivå upplevde både en högre grad av empowerment och arbetstillfredsställelse än respondenterna med en låg utbildningsnivå. Resultatet uppmärksammar även att det finns ett starkt positivt samband mellan empowerment och arbetstillfredsställelse, samt att empowerment har en påverkan på arbetstillfredsställelse för de lågutbildade respondenterna. Vi kunde däremot varken bekräfta eller förkasta att empowerment ökar arbetstillfredsställelsen för de högutbildade respondenterna.   Examensarbetets bidrag: Resultatet har främst visat att högutbildade individer upplever både en högre grad av empowerment och arbetstillfredsställelse, samt att empowerment ökar arbetstillfredsställelsen till en viss del för lågutbildade individer. Därmed är studiens teoretiska bidrag en ökad kunskap om hur en låg respektive hög utbildningsnivå förhåller sig till empowerment och arbetstillfredsställelse. Studiens praktiska bidrag är att det kan vara svårare att lyckas med empowerment i företag med lågutbildade anställda jämfört med företag med högutbildade anställda. Bidraget riktar sig till ledningen i företag som syftar till att implementera empowerment eller som använder empowerment som en styrfilosofi.   Förslag till fortsatt forskning: Till framtida forskning finns det ett behov av att undersöka varför svenska högutbildade individer visade sig vara mer komplexa i hur de associerade variabler i faktoranalysen, än individerna med en låg utbildningsnivå. Det finns även ett behov att undersöka om empowerment ökar arbetstillfredsställelse för högutbildade individer då denna studie inte lyckats undersöka detta. / Aim: Previous research has examined the relationship between empowerment and job satisfaction and found that empowerment increases job satisfaction. However, there is no previous research that has examined how the relationship differs depending on the level of education. The purpose of this study is to explain if the variable educational level affects experienced empowerment and job satisfaction among employees in companies where the management philosophy is characterized by empowerment.   Method: This study is based on a quantitative research strategy and a deductive research approach. The empirical data was collected through a questionnaire survey where the target population was companies that are characterized by empowerment. The study used a judgement sample that consisted of 503 respondents from 31 companies. The data was analyzed in Jamovi through descriptive statistics, bivariate correlation analysis and factor analysis. SEM- analyzes was then performed in SmartPLS 3. The result was reported, analyzed and then concluded to a conclusion.   Result & Conclusions: The results of this study shows that there is a difference between a high and a low level of education. The respondents with a high level of education experienced both a higher degree of empowerment and job satisfaction than the respondents with a low level of education. The result also draws attention to the fact that there is a strong positive correlation between empowerment and job satisfaction, and that empowerment increases job satisfaction to a certain extent for the respondents with a low level of education. However, we could neither confirm nor reject that empowerment increases the job satisfaction for the highly educated respondents.   Contribution of the thesis: The result has mainly shown that highly educated individuals experience both a higher degree of empowerment and job satisfaction, and that empowerment increases job satisfaction to a certain extent for low-educated individuals. The theoretical contribution of this study is an increased knowledge of how the two levels of education relate to empowerment and job satisfaction. The study's practical contribution is that it can be more difficult to succeed with empowerment in companies with low-educated employees compared to companies with highly educated employees. The contribution is of interest to the management in companies that want to implement or who already use empowerment as a management philosophy.   Suggestions for future research: For further research, there is a need to examine why the Swedish individuals with a high education turned out to be more complex in how they associated variables in the factor analysis, than the individuals with a low level of education. There is also a need to examine whether empowerment increases job satisfaction for individuals with a high education, since this study failed to examine this.