In early childhood mathematics, strategy-use is an important indicator of children's conceptual understanding and is a strong predictor of later math performance. Strategy instruction is common in many national curricula, yet is virtually absent from most math software. The current study describes the design of one software activity teaching single-digit addition strategies. The study explores the effectiveness of the software in detecting the strategies first-graders use and teaching them to use more efficient strategies. Instead of a business-as-usual control group, the study explores the effects of one aspect of the software: the pedagogical agent, investigating whether multiple agents are more effective than a single agent when teaching about multiple strategies. The study finds that while children do not accurately report their own strategies, the software log is able to detect the strategies that children use and is particularly adept at detecting the effective use of an advanced strategy with a model that performs 67% better than chance. Overall, children improve in their accuracy, speed, and use of advanced strategies. Of the three teaching tools available to the children, the count on tool was most effective in encouraging use of an advanced strategy, highlighting a need to revise the other tools. Low-performers correctly used advanced strategies more frequently across the six sessions, while mid-performers improved after just one session and high-performers' correct use of an advanced strategy was consistent across the sessions. Whether a student saw lessons featuring a single agent or multiple agents did not have strong effects on performance. More research is needed to improve the strategy detection models, refine the tools and lessons, and explore other features of the software.

Previous cognitive models of memory have not comprehensively taken into account the internal cognitive load of chunking isolated information and have emphasized the external cognitive load of visual presentation only. Under the Virk Long Term Working Memory Multimedia Model of cognitive load, drawing from the Cowan model, students presented with integrated animations of the key neural signal transmission subcomponents where the interrelationships between subcomponents are visually and verbally explicit, were hypothesized to perform significantly better on free response and diagram labeling questions, than students presented with isolated animations of these subcomponents. This is because the internal attentional cognitive load of chunking these concepts is greatly reduced and hence the overall cognitive load is less for the integrated visuals group than the isolated group, despite the higher external load for the integrated group of having the interrelationships between subcomponents presented explicitly. Experiment 1 demonstrated that integrating the subcomponents of the neuron significantly enhanced comprehension of the interconnections between cellular subcomponents and approached significance for enhancing recall of the layered molecular correlates of the cellular structures and their interconnections. Experiment 2 corrected time on task confounds from Experiment 1 and focused on the cellular subcomponents of the neuron only. Results from the free response essay subcomponent subscores did demonstrate significant differences in favor of the integrated group as well as some evidence from the diagram labeling section. Results from free response, short answer and What-If (problem solving), and diagram labeling detailed interrelationship subscores demonstrated the integrated group did indeed learn the extra material they were presented with. This data demonstrating the integrated group learned the extra material they were presented with provides some initial support for the assertion that chunking mediated the greater gains in learning for the neural subcomponent concepts over the control.

With the current focus to have all students reach scientific literacy in the U.S, there exists a need to support marginalized students, such as those with Learning Disabilities/Differences (LD), to reach the same educational goals as their mainstream counterparts. This dissertation examines the benefits of using audio assistive technology on the iPad to support LD students to achieve comprehension of science vocabulary and semantics. This dissertation is composed of two papers, both of which include qualitative information supported by quantified data. The first paper, titled Using Technology to Overcome Fundamental Literacy Constraints for Students with Learning Differences to Achieve Scientific Literacy, provides quantified evidence from pretest and posttest analysis that audio technology can be beneficial for seventh grade LD students when learning new and unfamiliar science content. Analysis of observations and student interviews support the findings. The second paper, titled Time, Energy, and Motivation: Utilizing Technology to Ease Science Understanding for Students with Learning Differences, supports the importance of creating technology that is clear, audible, and easy for students to use so they benefit and desire to utilize the learning tool. Multiple correlation of Likert Survey analysis was used to identify four major items and was supported with analysis from observations of and interviews with students, parents, and educators. This study provides useful information to support the rising number of identified LD students and their parents and teachers by presenting the benefits of using audio assistive technology to learn science.

Number sense, which can broadly thought of as the ability to quickly understand, approximate, and manipulate numerical quantities, can be a difficult construct for researchers to operationally define for empirical study. Regardless, many researchers agree it plays an important role in the development of the symbolic number system, which requires children to master many tasks such as counting, indentifying numerals, comparing magnitudes, transforming numbers and performing operations, estimating, and detecting number patterns, skills which are predictive of later math achievement. The number line is a powerful model of symbolic number consistent with researchers' hypotheses concerning the mental representation of number. The MathemAntics Number Line Activity (MANL) transforms the number line into a virtual manipulative, encourages estimation, provides multiple attempts, feedback, and scaffolding, and introduces a novel features where the user can define his own level of risk on the number line. The aim of the present study was to examine how these key features of MANL are best implemented to promote number sense in low-income second-graders. Sixty-six students from three schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions; MANL User-Defined Range (UDR), and MANL Fixed Range (FR), and a Reading comparison condition and underwent a pretest session, four computer sessions, and a posttest session. During the computer sessions, researchers coded a child's observed strategy in placing targets on the number line. The results showed that children with higher number sense ability at pretest performed better on a posttest number line estimation measure when they were in the UDR condition than in the FR condition. Conversely, children with low number sense ability at pretest performed better on the number line estimation posttest measure when they were in the FR condition than UDR. Although in general, all children improved over time, children with low number sense ability at pretest were more likely to use the UDR tool ineffectively, thus negatively impacting performance. When children were not coded as responding quickly, target number significantly impacted performance in the computer sessions. Finally, children in the UDR condition utilized better expressed strategies on the number line estimation posttest than children in the Reading comparison group. These findings indicate that prior number sense ability plays a role in how children engage with MANL, which in turn affects the learning benefits the child receives. Implications for researchers, software designers, and math educators, as well as limitations are discussed.

The purpose of this research study was to examine the effectiveness of two digital tools: a virtual number line (Jumper Tool); and a dynamic hundreds chart (Morphing Chart) in improving children’s understanding of multiplication and number sense. One hundred twenty-two third grade students (69 girls), ages ranging from 8 years-0 months to 10 years-3 months (M = 8.88 years, SD = 0.44) from three New York City public elementary schools, were recruited to participate in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two math treatment groups or a reading control group. Students in the Jumper group used a number line tool, while those in the Morphing group used a morphing hundreds chart. Children’s number sense ability and understanding of multiplication were tested at pre- and posttest to examine group differences. Researchers recorded children’s strategy use and a back-end logging system collected data on accuracy during treatment sessions. No group differences across the Jumper, Morphing, or Control groups were found at posttests when controlling for pretest performance. However, the presence of a tool (Jumper or Morphing) during treatment sessions resulted in better performance than the absence of a tool (No Tool). Strategy use had a significant effect on session performance as well. Fast and Tool Use responses performed better than Delayed responses. Additionally, Fast responses were more likely to be correct than those who used an Advanced strategy. Finally, the results indicated that Fast responses were predictive of children’s performance on multiplication facts and number sense tests and Tool use was predictive of performance on multiplication facts. These findings suggest that having a tool, Jumper or Morphing, helped children solve multiplication problems and that tool use is related to superior mastery of multiplication facts.

Technology has long been viewed an important tool in education and instructional software offers unique affordances that when designed well can help improve teaching and learning. However, for software to effectively impact education, teachers must be prepared to effectively incorporate it into the classroom. This is a task that involves many factors, three of which explored in this study include the abilities to integrate, find, and evaluate quality of educational software. With the increasing support for the use of educational software with young children, it is imperative to understand the unique challenges early childhood teachers face and how teacher education programs are preparing them to meet the demands of an evolving 21st century education system. Contrary to their colleagues who teach older students, extensive research on this population and topic is largely absent. Given that little research has been done to evaluate how prepared pre-service teachers are to enter the early childhood classroom and integrate educational software, the main goals of this study were to offer preliminary insight on their experiences using and preparing to use educational software with young children; how they approach evaluating quality of educational software; and beliefs on how well their teacher education programs have prepared them. Results from this study have important implications for the design of teacher education programs and in-service professional development on the integration of educational software at the early childhood grade levels. This paper provides initial evidence that pre-service early childhood teachers may be under-prepared to enter the classroom ready to effectively integrate educational software and demonstrates a clear need for more research on how teacher education programs prepare their students to integrate, find, and evaluate quality of educational software in the classroom setting. Furthermore, results also offer school administrators insight on how prepared first year teachers are meet classroom expectations. For educational technology to significantly impact teaching and learning, targeted in-service professional development opportunities and enhanced teacher education may be necessary, even for the generations of teachers who grew up during the technological explosion.

<p> The increased presence of technology in all aspects of daily life makes computational thinking a necessary skill. Predictions say that the rising need for computational thinkers will be unmet by computer science graduates. An e-textile learning module, based on principles of constructionism, was designed as a method to develop computational thinking skills and encourage interest and confidence in the computing fields in both male and female graduate education students. The module leveraged the affordances of the LilyPad Arduino, a technology that allows for the creation of projects that integrate textiles and electronics without soldering. The creation of the learning module relied on design-based research methodologies and followed the use-modify-create principle for the included activities. Multiple data sources were analyzed using The Computational Thinking Rubric for Examining Students&rsquo; Project Work to examine artifacts and interactions for indications of computational thinking concepts, practices, and perspectives. Students participated in debugging activities and created their own projects as part of the learning module. Analysis of the learning module activities showed students using computational thinking concepts, engaged in computational thinking practices, and exhibiting computational thinking perspectives. During the coding process, several new computational thinking concepts, practices, and perspectives emerged. There was evidence of both an increase and decrease in confidence among the student participants. Improvements for the next iteration of the learning module were presented and the implications for the study of computational thinking explored. The study helps contradict the shrinking pipeline metaphor by showing that it is possible to encourage interest in computation in university students, not just middle-school students.</p><p>

<p> This study was conducted in order to understand the types of music technologies band educators in the state of Arkansas were using, their attitudes towards technology, and the implications training, during undergraduate and through professional development, had on the frequency of use. Arkansas Music Educators (n = 64) completed an online questionnaire containing demographic information, selection of music technologies, agreeability/disagreeability to statements about music technology, frequency of use, descriptions of technologies, and description of how they felt music technology should be used for the purpose of learning. Regarding training in undergraduate professional development for music technology use, there appeared to be no difference between the increase of music technology usage and the increase of more training. Results suggest that participants have an overall &ldquo;good&rdquo; attitude towards technology with the stipulation that it should be considered a tool, students and teachers receive appropriate training, and it should be used efficiently.</p><p>

<p> This study focused on the motivation of K-12 teachers to participate in district online professional development and to sustain the knowledge or skills learned. This study identified how teachers in a suburban school district, located in the Hudson Valley region of New York state, evaluated the online professional development they received and the extent to which their learning continued beyond the initial training. Through a phenomenological study, data indicated several factors motivated teachers to participate in online professional development; the primary motivator was the relevance of the topic. The online survey and interviews indicated teachers were interested and willing to participate in online professional development when they could choose the topic and the setting in which the learning takes place. An additional motivator was the benefit of collaboration and support provided by the facilitator, both during and after the training. Teachers shared their ability to make connections and to reflect on their own experiences increased when they had the opportunity to work collaboratively with the facilitator to develop and implement a lesson using the new knowledge or skill. Teachers who identified taking relevant district online professional development with collaborative facilitators also reported specific examples of how they implemented skills in their classrooms. Teachers described how the district online professional development helped to improve their students&rsquo; learning.</p><p>

<p> Technological advancements in society demand that students learn in contexts that take advantage of the vast availability of information, tools, and connectivity. Although research has focused on the development of Personal Learning Networks (PLNs) to inform and support teachers and principals within these evolving environments (Barkley, 2012; Carpenter &amp; Krutka, 2014; Sinanis, 2015; Visser, Evering &amp; Barrett, 2004), there is a lack of formal learning opportunities for leadership to support this transformation. Further, limited empirical research exists to substantiate claims that school district leaders who use social media for PLN purposes learn about, share, and enact leadership to support organizational transformation.</p><p> To help fill this gap in the knowledge base, this study employed a four-stage mixed-method research study to investigate United States public school superintendents use of Twitter for learning, leading, and leveraging improvement. Stage one established the population of United States superintendents with Twitter accounts. Stage two drew a random sample from the population to analyze representative Twitter patterns. Stage three focused on coding randomly sampled tweets of 100 superintendents for content aligned to the conceptual framework of learning, leading and leveraging through Twitter. Coding results framed stage four, which presented case studies of a purposeful sample of superintendents to identify motivations, purposes and influence on leadership enactment through Twitter use.</p><p> The study results showed that approximately 17% of U.S. superintendents have Twitter accounts. The Twitter-using superintendents reflect the gender breakdown of American superintendents, but Midwestern superintendents are overrepresented. Superintendents use Twitter predominantly for professional reasons with tweet content demonstrating a higher inclination toward leveraging influence than learning or leading. Superintendents purposefully use Twitter in ways they believe enhances their leadership by providing transparency to their work and district accomplishments. Through connections with others, superintendents use Twitter to inspire and communicate a vision for purposeful change; advocate for funding and policy; and model effective technology use through PLNs to enhance learning and collegial relationships. Additionally, Twitter enhanced off-line interactions and provided connection with students, offering professional wisdom about their experiences within school systems. The study provides insights of how social media contributes to digital leadership within school districts.</p>