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"Electrochemistry, based on the study of an electrochemical reaction at the interface between an electrode and an electrolyte, is having a profound effect on the development of different fields of science and engineering including battery, fuel cell, electrochemical sensor, electrochromic display, electrodeposition, electroplating, electrophoresis, corrosion, and so on. The performance of the electrochemical reaction depends strongly on the nature of the employed electrode such as structure, chemical composition, and surface morphology. Nanomaterials, notable for their extremely small feature size (normally in the range of 1-100 nm), exhibit new properties which are different from those of bulk materials due to their small size effect. In past decade, nanomaterials have been widely used to develop new strategies for designing electrode and its surface morphology for electrocatalysis and electrochemical sensing applications. My work is aimed at exploring the application of low dimensional nanomaterials (nanotubes and nanoparticles) in electrocatalysis and electrochemical biosensors. Electrocatalysis plays an important role in energy and industrial applications. As one of the most attractive support materials for electrocatalyst, carbon nanotubes have been extensively reported to enhance the performance of various electrochemical catalytic reactions. In recent years, carbon nanotubes with a bamboo-like structure due to nitrogen doping have become a hot topic of increased interest in the field of electrocatalysis because of the unique bamboo shaped structure associated properties. In this work, bamboo shaped carbon nanotubes, synthesized by chemical vapor deposition method, were investigated for ethanol/methanol electro-oxidation, respectively. Small sized platinum nanoparticles (Pt NPs) were dispersed onto BCNT surface through an impregnation method. The role of nitrogen doping in the formation of bamboo shaped structure and its effect in the electrochemical performance of CNTs were discussed. The electrochemical studies showed that the as-prepared Pt/BCNTs electrocatalysts indeed exhibited a remarkable enhancement in catalytic activity for methanol/ethanol oxidation compared to that of the Pt/commercial CNT electrocatalysts. In order to further investigate the potential of using BCNTs as bioelectrocatalyst support materials, a hybrid organic-inorganic nanocomposite film of BCNTs/ploymer was constructed to immobilize an enzyme horseradish peroxidase (HRP) to examine the direct electrochemical behavior of the enzyme towards electrocatalysis process of H2O2. The results indicated that the immobilized HRP onto the film retains its good bioelectrocatalytic activity to H2O2. The defective sites on the BCNTs surface induced by nitrogen doping could help to promote the direct electron transfer between enzyme and the electrode. The BCNT/polymer film structure provides a vast array of new opportunities to use BCNTs as building units for bioelectrochemical and biomedical applications. Compared to carbon nanotubes, TiO2 nanotubes have much better biocompatibility and show greater potential as implant materials. The advantages of TiO2 nanotube array include high biocompatibility, good corrosion resistance in biological environments and highly ordered one dimensional nanotubular geometry. Herein, a well performing non-enzymatic electrochemical glucose biosensor by using CuO nanoparticle decorated TiO2 nanotube array electrode was developed. Well-aligned TiO2 nanotube arrays were successfully synthesized by electrochemical anodization. Highly uniform CuO nanoparticles were electrodeposited onto TiO2 nanotube arrays through a two-step method and used to electrocatalyze the glucose oxidation. The proposed electrode produced a high sensitivity of 239.9 ìA mM-1 cm-2 and a low detection limit of 0.78 ìM with good stability, reproducibility, selectivity and fast response time, suggesting its potential to be developed as a low-cost nano-biosensor for glucose measurements in human fluids. The final work of this thesis presents a simple sandwich-type electrochemical impedance immunosensor with antitoxin heavy-chain-only VH (VHH) antibodies labeled gold nanoparticles as the amplifying probe for detecting Clostridium difficile toxins. Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) with diameter of ~13-15 nm were synthesized and characterized by transmission electron microscopy and UV-vis spectra. The electron transfer resistance of the working electrode surface was used as parameter in the measurement of the biosensor. With the increase of the concentration of toxins from 1pg/mL to 100 pg/mL, a linear relationship was observed between the relative electron transfer resistance and toxin concentration. In addition, the detection signal was enhanced due to the amplification effect. This proposed method achieved a limit of detection for TcdA and TcdB as 0.61 pg/mL and 0.60 pg/mL, respectively. The pilot study with spiked clinical stool samples showed promising results, indicating the designed biosensor has a great potential in clinical applications."

O desenvolvimento de sensores eletroquímicos para glicose integrados a cateteres tem como requisitos básicos a sua miniaturização e funcionamento por períodos relativamente longos no ambiente intravenoso. A função de tais sensores é o acompanhamento de forma continuada e em tempo real, a evolução clínica de pacientes internados em unidades de terapia intensiva (UTIs). Dentre os sensores para glicose, os biossensores amperométricos baseados na reação enzimática de glicose oxidase se mostrou o mais promissor. Diferentes procedimentos para a construção de tais microssensores implantáveis foram desenvolvidos. Um conjunto de eletrodos, constituído fios de platina (mais adiante cobre, com diâmetro 0,18 mm) e de prata (diâmetro 0,20 mm) revestidos com poli-vinil-formol foram posicionados no interior de uma agulha de aço inoxidável (30,0 mm de comprimento e 0,80 a 1,2 mm de diâmetro) e fixados com resina epóxi, constituindo um dispositivo único com os eletrodos de trabalho, referência e auxiliar, respectivamente. A otimização do sensor envolveu a platinização eletroquímica da superfície do eletrodo de trabalho, o que aumentou a sua área efetiva e favoreceu a deposição do material enzimático. A presença de um detergente não iônico favoreceu a formação de um filme uniforme de enzimas e a eletropolimerização de 1,2-diaminobenzeno (em presença de albumina de soro bovino) foi utilizada para a formação de um filme com a característica de minimizar a interferência de espécies neutras. A adição de um filme de Náfion® à superfície do sensor aumentou a seletividade. O sensor resultante caracterizou-se por possuir um tempo de resposta curto (~6 s), linearidade de 1,0 até 12,5 mmol dm-3 com um limite de detecção de 1,0 mmol dm-3 , diminuição na resposta de espécies eletroativas (ácido ascórbico 2,0% e paracetamol 10,5% em relação à glicose) e uma vida útil superior a sete dias, em tampão fosfato 0,05 mol dm-3 . Para possibilitar o implante de tais sensores, foram exploradas diferentes metodologias de esterilização, sendo a mais favorável a irradiação com acelerador de elétrons com doses acumulativas. Sensores revestidos com acetato de celulose e Náfion® (a melhor condição) apresentaram perda de atividade da ordem de 15%, após serem irradiados. / The development of electrochemical sensors for glucose integrated into catheters has as basic requisite its miniaturization and the requirement of functioning for relatively long periods in the intravenous environment. The function of such sensors is the continuous monitoring on real time of the clinical evolution of patients hospitalized in intensive therapy units (UTIs). Amongst the sensors for glucose, amperometric biosensors based on the enzymatic reaction of glucose oxidase has been considered as the most promising ones. Different procedures for the construction of such microsensors to be implanted have been developed. A set of electrodes, constituted by a platinum wire (along this work, it was substituted by copper wires) with 0.18 mm diameter and a silver wire with 0.20 mm diameter coated with poly-vinyl-formol were positioned inside a stainless needle (30.0 mm length and 0.80 to 1.2 mm diameter) and fixed with epoxy resin, resulting in a single device containing the working, reference and auxiliary electrodes, respectively. The optimization of the sensor involved the electrochemical platinization of the working electrode surface, increasing its effective area and favoring the deposition of the enzymatic material. The presence of a non-ionic detergent favored the formation of a uniform film of enzyme and the electropolymerization of 1,2-diaminobenzene (in the presence of albumin and bovine serum) was used for the formation of a film able to ® interference of neutral species. The addition of a Nafion® film to the sensor surface increased its selectivity. The resultant sensor was characterized for its short time -3 response (~6 s), linearity between 1.0 and 12.5 mmol dm-3 with a detection limit of 1.0 mmol dm-3 , reduction in the interference of electroactive species (2.0% ascorbic acid and 10.5% paracetamol in relation to glucose) and a useful life larger than seven days, in 0.05 mol dm-3 phosphate buffer. To make possible the implantation of such sensors, different methodologies of sterilization were explored, being the most favorable the irradiation with electron accelerator using accumulating doses. Sensors coated with cellulose acetate and Nafion® (the best condition) presented loss of activity (around 15%), after the irradiation.

O desenvolvimento de sensores eletroquímicos para glicose integrados a cateteres tem como requisitos básicos a sua miniaturização e funcionamento por períodos relativamente longos no ambiente intravenoso. A função de tais sensores é o acompanhamento de forma continuada e em tempo real, a evolução clínica de pacientes internados em unidades de terapia intensiva (UTIs). Dentre os sensores para glicose, os biossensores amperométricos baseados na reação enzimática de glicose oxidase se mostrou o mais promissor. Diferentes procedimentos para a construção de tais microssensores implantáveis foram desenvolvidos. Um conjunto de eletrodos, constituído fios de platina (mais adiante cobre, com diâmetro 0,18 mm) e de prata (diâmetro 0,20 mm) revestidos com poli-vinil-formol foram posicionados no interior de uma agulha de aço inoxidável (30,0 mm de comprimento e 0,80 a 1,2 mm de diâmetro) e fixados com resina epóxi, constituindo um dispositivo único com os eletrodos de trabalho, referência e auxiliar, respectivamente. A otimização do sensor envolveu a platinização eletroquímica da superfície do eletrodo de trabalho, o que aumentou a sua área efetiva e favoreceu a deposição do material enzimático. A presença de um detergente não iônico favoreceu a formação de um filme uniforme de enzimas e a eletropolimerização de 1,2-diaminobenzeno (em presença de albumina de soro bovino) foi utilizada para a formação de um filme com a característica de minimizar a interferência de espécies neutras. A adição de um filme de Náfion® à superfície do sensor aumentou a seletividade. O sensor resultante caracterizou-se por possuir um tempo de resposta curto (~6 s), linearidade de 1,0 até 12,5 mmol dm-3 com um limite de detecção de 1,0 mmol dm-3 , diminuição na resposta de espécies eletroativas (ácido ascórbico 2,0% e paracetamol 10,5% em relação à glicose) e uma vida útil superior a sete dias, em tampão fosfato 0,05 mol dm-3 . Para possibilitar o implante de tais sensores, foram exploradas diferentes metodologias de esterilização, sendo a mais favorável a irradiação com acelerador de elétrons com doses acumulativas. Sensores revestidos com acetato de celulose e Náfion® (a melhor condição) apresentaram perda de atividade da ordem de 15%, após serem irradiados. / The development of electrochemical sensors for glucose integrated into catheters has as basic requisite its miniaturization and the requirement of functioning for relatively long periods in the intravenous environment. The function of such sensors is the continuous monitoring on real time of the clinical evolution of patients hospitalized in intensive therapy units (UTIs). Amongst the sensors for glucose, amperometric biosensors based on the enzymatic reaction of glucose oxidase has been considered as the most promising ones. Different procedures for the construction of such microsensors to be implanted have been developed. A set of electrodes, constituted by a platinum wire (along this work, it was substituted by copper wires) with 0.18 mm diameter and a silver wire with 0.20 mm diameter coated with poly-vinyl-formol were positioned inside a stainless needle (30.0 mm length and 0.80 to 1.2 mm diameter) and fixed with epoxy resin, resulting in a single device containing the working, reference and auxiliary electrodes, respectively. The optimization of the sensor involved the electrochemical platinization of the working electrode surface, increasing its effective area and favoring the deposition of the enzymatic material. The presence of a non-ionic detergent favored the formation of a uniform film of enzyme and the electropolymerization of 1,2-diaminobenzene (in the presence of albumin and bovine serum) was used for the formation of a film able to ® interference of neutral species. The addition of a Nafion® film to the sensor surface increased its selectivity. The resultant sensor was characterized for its short time -3 response (~6 s), linearity between 1.0 and 12.5 mmol dm-3 with a detection limit of 1.0 mmol dm-3 , reduction in the interference of electroactive species (2.0% ascorbic acid and 10.5% paracetamol in relation to glucose) and a useful life larger than seven days, in 0.05 mol dm-3 phosphate buffer. To make possible the implantation of such sensors, different methodologies of sterilization were explored, being the most favorable the irradiation with electron accelerator using accumulating doses. Sensors coated with cellulose acetate and Nafion® (the best condition) presented loss of activity (around 15%), after the irradiation.

The introduction of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing about 3 decades ago led to the possibility of early detection of prostate cancer (PCa). Although PSA testing reduced the mortality rate, it is also associated with high risk of over diagnosis in patients with and without PCa. Despite the current drawbacks, it would be a challenge to replace PSA testing entirely. Instead, there is a need to develop parallel testing of other potential biomarkers that can complement the results from PSA tests. To address alternative biomarker sensing, this thesis highlights on the development of oligonucleotide-based biosensors for the detection of different biomarkers of PCa. Using PSA as a gold standard, the first study of this dissertation investigates the use of DNA aptamers to detect PSA using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The study compares 6-mercapto 1-hexanol chemistry with sulfo-betaine chemistry for the development of PSA aptasensor in terms of performance and selectivity. The second study focuses on glycoprofiling in order to complement PSA quantification as an additional information for reliable PCa diagnosis. This strategy was developed in a microfluidic channel with an optical read out using chemiluminescence. This study addresses one of the major problems of cross-reactivity with lectins in glycoprofiling, which can be solved using DNA aptamers. A third study concentrates on the development of an aptasensor for Alpha-Methylacyl-CoA Racemase (AMACR). AMACR has been reported for its high specificity and sensitivity to PCa. For the fabrication of the biosensor, a new strategy using polyethylene glycol was developed by electrochemical grafting it to a polypyrrole film. Since PCa diagnosis can be improved by looking at different biomarkers, an electrochemical platform for miRNA/DNA detection using a gold nanoparticle amplification strategy was also investigated. The sensor was fabricated using peptide nucleic acids (PNA) probes on gold electrodes. The study presents non-Faradaic EIS and amperometric techniques in order to exploit the inherent charges of nucleic acids. In conclusion, this thesis wants to serve as a potential orientation for overcoming the shortcomings of the current PCa testing and contribute towards the development of oligonucleotide-based biosensors for PCa biomarker detection and hopefully enhance the diagnosis and prognosis of PCa.

La tuberculose (TB) est une maladie transmise par l'air causée par Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) qui affecte habituellement les poumons, entraînant une toux sévère, de la fièvre et des douleurs thoraciques. En 2015, il a été estimé que plus de 9,6 millions de personnes dans le monde ont développé la tuberculose et que 1,5 millions sont morts de la maladie infectieuse dont 12% étaient co-infectés par le virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH). En 2016, les statistiques ont atteint un total de 1,7 million de personnes décédées de la tuberculose avec environ 10,4 millions de nouveaux cas de TB diagnostiqués dans le monde. Le développement de systèmes de mesures rapides et fiables, ultra-sensibles, bon marché et facilement disponibles est essentiel pour lutter contre la tuberculose (TB) et la tuberculose multirésistante. Ce travail est une étude sur la faisabilité d'une part d'immunocapteurs électrochimique utilisant un antigène spécifique de Mycobacterium tuberculosis Ag85B pour détecter la tuberculose et d'autre part de biocapteurs utilisant l'enzyme cytochrome P450-2E1 (CYP2E1) pour détecter les médicaments antituberculeux dans le sérum ou l’eau.L'immunocapteur a été développé en adoptant la méthode ELISA indirecte qui a été utilisée pour la détection des anticorps IgG dans les tests ELISA IgG contre la tuberculose. Il a été réalisé en électrodéposant par voltamétrie cyclique (CV) d’abord de l'acide polyamique (PAA) sur une électrode de carbone vitreux (GCE) puis des antigènes recombinants de Mycobacterium tuberculosis Ag85B (Ag). Les électrodes modifiées ont été caractérisées par CV et SWV. Le profil de réponse de l'immunocapteur à des anticorps de Mycobacterium tuberculosis a été étudié par SWV et la réponse linéaire était dans une gamme de 0,3 à 1,6 mg / mL avec une limite de détection (LOD) de 0,08 mg / mL.D'autre part, deux plates-formes pour le développement de biocapteurs pour la détection de médicaments antituberculeux, l'éthambutol (ETH) et la rifampicine (RIF), ont également été préparées. L’une était un composite PAA/AgNPs (nanoparticules d’argent) déposé par goutte sur GCE pour former une plate-forme GCE/PAA/AgNPs. Alors que l'autre plate-forme (GCE/PPy/AgNPs) a été formée par électrodéposition de pyrrole en présence de nanoparticules d'argent (PPy + AgNPs) sur GCE en utilisant la chronopotentiométrie. Les plateformes GCE/PAA/AgNPs et GCE/PPy/AgNPs ont ensuite été caractérisées en utilisant la voltamétrie cyclique alors que leurs morphologies l’ont été par microscopie à force atomique (AFM) et microscopie électronique à balayage (MEB). L'immobilisation de l'enzyme cytochrome P450-2E1 (CYP2E1) sur les deux plates-formes a été réalisée par dépôt de gouttes. L'efficacité des biocapteurs GCE/PAA/AgNPs/CYP2E1 et GCE/PPy/AgNPs/CYP2E1 pour la détection de ETH et de RIF a été étudiée par DPV. Le biocapteur GCE/PPy/AgNPs/CYP2E1 a été capable de détecter les médicaments antituberculeux à leur concentration sérique maximale (2 à 6 μg/mL). Alors que le biocapteur GCE/PAA/AgNPs/CYP2E1 était capable de détecter l'ETH à des concentrations inférieures au taux sérique (2,5 ng/mL à 12,5 ng/mL). Par conséquent, le biocapteur GCE/PAA/AgNPs/CYP2E1 a la capacité de détecter ETH même à l'état de traces dans les systèmes aqueux. Ainsi, le biocapteur GCE/PAA/AgNPs/CYP2E1 a une limite inférieure de détection de l'ETH (0,75 ng/mL) par rapport au biocapteur GCE/PPy/AgNPs/CYP2E1 (1,3 µg/mL). La sensibilité du biocapteur GCE/PAA/AgNPs/CYP2E1 pour l'ETH était de 5 µA/ng.mL-1 alors que celle du biocapteur GCE/PPy/AgNPs/CYP2E1 était de 2,6 µA/µg.mL-1. Le biocapteur GCE/PPy/AgNPs/CYP2E1 était le seul biocapteur capable de détecter le RIF avec une limite de détection de 7,5 µg/mL. Le biocapteur GCE/PPy/AgNPs/CYP2E1 convient à la détection de l'ETH et du RIF aux taux sériques et aux systèmes aqueux. Alors que le GCE/PAA/AgNPs/CYP2E1 ne convient que pour la détection des médicaments antituberculeux à des niveaux traces dans l'eau. / Tuberculosis (TB) is an airborne disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) that usually affects the lungs leading to severe coughing, fever and chest pains. In 2015 it was estimated that over 9.6 million people worldwide developed TB and 1.5 million died from the infectious disease of which 12 % were co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). In 2016 the statistics increased to a total of 1.7 million people died from TB with an estimated 10.4 million new cases of TB diagnosed worldwide. The development of the fast and reliable point-of-care systems that are ultra-sensitive, cheap and readily available is essential in order to address and control the spread of the tuberculosis (TB) disease and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. This work is the feasibly study on one part on the development of electrochemical immunosensor using a specific Mycobacterium tuberculosis Ag85B antigen to detect tuberculosis and on another part on the development of biosensors using cytochrome P450-2E1 (CYP2E1) enzyme to detect anti-TB drugs in aqueous systems. The immunosensor was developed by adopting the indirect ELISA method which was used for the detection of the IgG antibodies using the tuberculosis IgG ELISA. The development of immunosensor was achieved using glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with polyamic acid (PAA) in which Mycobacterium tuberculosis recombinant antigen Ag85B (Ag) was immobilized. PAA was electrodeposited on glassy carbon electrode (GCE) using cyclic voltammetry. The modified electrodes were characterized by cyclic and square wave voltammetry. The response profile of the immunosensor at Mycobacterium tuberculosis antibodies was studied by square wave voltammetry and the linear response was in a range of 0.3 to 1.6 mg/mL with a detection limit (LOD) of 0.08 mg/mL. On the other hand, two platforms for the development of biosensors for the detection of ethambutol and rifampicin (anti-TB drugs) were also prepared. Two platforms were prepared whereby polyamic acid-silver nanoparticles composite (PAA/AgNPs) was drop-coated on GCE to form GCE/PAA/AgNPs platform. While the other platform (GCE/PPy/AgNPs) was formed by electrodeposition of polypyrrole-silver nanoparticles composite (PPy/AgNPs) on GCE using chronopotentiometry. The GCE/PAA/AgNPs and GCE/PPy/AgNPs platforms were then characterized using cyclic voltammetry while their morphologies were obtained by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The immobilization of cytochrome P450-2E1 enzyme (CYP2E1) on both platforms was achieved by means of drop coating. The efficiency of the GCE/PAA/AgNPs/CYP2E1 and GCE/PPy/AgNPs/CYP2E1 biosensors for the detection of ethambutol (ETH) and rifampicin (RIF) was studied by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). The GCE/PPy/AgNPs/CYP2E1 biosensor was able to detect anti-TB drugs at their peak serum levels (2 – 6 µg/mL). Whereas the GCE/PAA/AgNPs/CYP2E1 biosensor was able to detect ethambutol at concentrations lower than the serum level (2.5 ng/mL to 12.5 ng/mL). Therefore, GCE/PAA/AgNPs/CYP2E1 biosensor has an ability to detect ethambutol even at trace levels in aqueous systems. Thus, the GCE/PAA/AgNPs/CYP2E1 biosensor have lower limit of detecting ETH (0.75 ng/mL) than GCE/PPy/AgNPs/CYP2E1 biosensor (1.3 µg/mL). The sensitivity of GCE/PAA/AgNPs/CYP2E1 biosensor for ETH was 5 μA/ng.mL-1while the sensitivity of GCE/PPy/AgNPs/CYP2E1 biosensor was 2.6 μA/μg.mL-1. The GCE/PPy/AgNPs/CYP2E1 biosensor was the only biosensor that was able to detect RIF with a limit of detection of 7.5 µg/mL. The GCE/PPy/AgNPs/CYP2E1 biosensor is suitable for the detection of ETH and RIF at serum levels and aqueous systems. While the GCE/PAA/AgNPs/CYP2E1 is suitable for only detecting anti-TB drugs at trace levels in water.

Esta tese descreve a preparação, caracterização e desenvolvimento de biossensores baseados na imobilização de enzimas em filmes nanoestruturados. Os filmes foram obtidos pela técnica de automontagem do inglês Layer-by-Layer (LbL) ou pela técnica de Langmuir-Blodgett (LB). A tese se divide em três partes: a primeira parte teve como objetivo o estudo e a aplicação de filmes finos nanoestruturados, contendo enzima tirosinase (Tyr), em biossensores para detecção de moléculas antioxidantes (polifenóis), visando sua aplicação na indústria de alimentos, em especial a de vinhos tintos. Foi utilizada a técnica LB para a imobilização da enzima Tyr sobre substratos sólidos (ITO ou Pt) sem que a enzima perdesse sua atividade. A enzima foi incorporada a filmes LB mistos de ácido araquídico (AA) e bisftalocianina de lutécio (LuPc2) pela injeção na subfase aquosa. A LuPc2 foi usada como mediadora de transferência de cargas. Foi possível a detecção do composto fenólico representativo pirrogalol. Estudos de voltametría cíclica demonstraram que o biossensor possui uma boa reprodutibilidade com desvio padrão de ca. 2% (n = 4), limite dinâmico de até 400 \'mü\'M (potencial aplicado de 0,4 V; R2: 0,993), sensibilidade de 1,54 \'mü\'A.\'mü\'M POT.-1/\'CM POT.2\' e limite de detecção (critério 3\'sigma\'0/m) de 4,87 x \'10 POT.-2\' \'mü\'M (n = 10). A segunda parte do trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento de sensores eletroquímicos baseados em filmes automontados LbL de hidrocloreto de polialilamina (PAH) e LuPc2. A motivação para o estudo foi a troca do material biológico (Tyr) pela LuPc2, a qual possui poder catalítico e relativa seletividade, capaz de mimetizar algumas proteínas. A LuPc2 foi utilizada como enzima artificial na quantificação de catecol e pirogalol como representantes de compostos fenólicos. Em medidas de voltametria, o sensor automontado de PAH/LuPc2 apresentou boa linearidade (R2 = 0,992) na faixa de até 500 \'mü\'M, com uma sensibilidade de 90 nA/\'mü\'M e limite de detecção de 8 \'mü\'M. Nas medidas cronoamperométricas, os sensores apresentaram uma ampla faixa linear (R2 = 0,994; tempo de resposta de 60 s) de até 900 \'mü\'M e limite de detecção (LD) de 37,5 x \'10 POT.-8\' M (sensibilidade de 20 nA/\'mü\'M) para o catecol. Por fim, estudou-se a fabricação de filmes LbL baseados em dendrímero poli(propileno imina) (PPID) e metaloftalocianina tetrasulfonada de níquel (NiTsPc) em sensores baseados em transistores de efeito de campo (FET). Neste caso, os filmes foram utilizados como membranas sensíveis na aplicação de sensores de pH e \'H IND.2\'O IND.2\'. Também se demonstra a importância de se utilizar estruturas dendríticas nesse tipo de filme, comparando estes filmes com aqueles contendo um polieletrólito fraco linear (PAH). Foi dada ênfase à fabricação dos filmes pela técnica LbL e sua aplicação em sensores do tipo FET de porta estendida e separada (SEGFET). Filmes LbL baseados em enzimas artificiais se mostram bastante promissores em aplicações reais por serem relativamente baratos e simples, possibilitando o uso de variados tipos de materiais. A utilização desses filmes em dispositivos baseados em estruturas SEGFET possibilita a miniaturização dos sensores bem como sua produção unindo técnicas convencionais de fabricação microeletrônica. / This thesis describes the preparation, characterization and development of biosensors based on nanostructured films containing immobilized enzymes and metallophthalocyanines. The films were obtained using the Layer-by-Layer (LbL) or Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) techniques. In the first part of the thesis we describe the development of nanostructured thin films containing the enzyme tyrosinase (Tyr) and their use as biosensors for detection of antioxidants molecules (polyphenols), which find applications in the food industry, specialy red wines. The enzyme was incorporated into the mixed LB films of arachidic acid (AA) and lutetium bisphthalocyanine (LuPc2) by injection into the aqueous subphase followed by transference to ITO or Pt electrodes. The representative phenolic compound molecule to be detected was pyrogallol. Cyclic voltammetry studies shown that the biosensor response is highly reproducible with a standard deviation of ca. 2% (n = 4), dynamic range up to 400 \'mü\'M (applied potential of 0.4 V; R2: 0.993), sensitivity of 1.54 \'mü\'A/\'mü\'M.\'CM POT.2\' and detection limit (3 \'sigma\'0/m criteria) of 4.87 x \'10 POT.-2\' \'mü\'M (n = 10). The second part of this thesis focus on the development of electrochemical sensors based on LbL films of poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) and LuPc2. The purpose of the study was to change the biological material (Tyr) by LuPc2. LuPc2 was used as an artificial enzyme in the quantification of catechol and pyrogallol as representative of phenolic compounds. In voltammetric measurements, the LbL PAH/LuPc2 sensors presented good linearity (R2 = 0.992) in the range up to 500 \'mü\'M with a sensitivity of 90 nA/\'mü\'M and detection limit of 8 \'mü\'M. As revealed by chronoamperometry measurements, the sensors exhibited a wide linear range (R2 = 0.994; response time of 60 s) up to 900 M and detection limit of 37.5 × \'10 POT.-8\' \'mü\'M (sensibility of 20 nA/\'mü\'M) for catechol. Finally, we investigated the fabrication of LbL films based on poly(propylene imine) dendrimer (PPID) and nickel tetrasulfonated phthalocyanine (NiTsPc) as active elements in devices based on field effect transistors (FET). The films were used as sensitive membranes applied as pH and \'H IND.2\'O IND.2\' sensors. It was shown the importance on the LbL technique and its application in FET-based sensors such as the separated and extended gate FET (SEGFET). LBL films based on artificial enzymes exhibit great promise in real applications due to their low cost and simplicity. The use of these films in devices based on SEGFET structures allows miniaturization of the sensors and their production combining conventional microelectronics fabrication and nanotechnological tools.

ABSTRACT BIOACTIVE SURFACE DESIGN BASED ON CONDUCTING POLYMERS AND APPLICATIONS TO BIOSENSORS Ekiz, Fulya M. Sc., Department of Biotechnology Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Levent Toppare Co-Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Suna Timur June 2012, 88 pages An underlying idea of joining the recognition features of biological macromolecules to the sensitivity of electrochemical devices has brought the concept of biosensors as remarkable analytical tools for monitoring desired analytes in different technological areas. Over other methods, biosensors have some advantages including high selectivity, sensitivity, simplicity and this leads to solutions for some problems met in the measurement of some analytes. In this context, conducting polymers are excellent alternatives with their biocompatibility and ease of applicability for an efficient immobilization of biomolecules in preparing biosensors. Using several materials and arranging the surface properties of the electrodes, more efficient and seminal designs can be achieved. In this thesis, it is aimed to create new direct biosensors systems for the detection of several analytes such as glucose and pesticides thought to be harmful to the environment. Recently synthesized conducting polymers (polyTBT) / (poly(2-dodecyl-4,7-di(thiophen-2-yl)-2H-benzo[ d][1,2,3]triazole) and (poly(TBT 6 -NH2 ) / poly(6-(4,7-di(thiophen-2-yl)-2H-benzo[d][1,2,3]triazol-2-yl)hexan-1-amine) were utilized as a matrices for biomolecule immobilization. After successful electrochemical deposition the polymers on the graphite electrode surfaces, immobilization of glucose oxidase (GOx) and choline oxidase (ChO) were carried out. Amperometric measurements were recorded by monitoring oxygen consumption in the presence of substrates at -0.7 V. The optimized biosensors showed a very good linearity with rapid response times and low detection limits (LOD) to glucose and choline. Also, kinetic parameters, operational and storage stabilities were determined. Finally, designed biosensor systems were applied for glucose and pesticide detection in different media.

Esta tese descreve a preparação, caracterização e desenvolvimento de biossensores baseados na imobilização de enzimas em filmes nanoestruturados. Os filmes foram obtidos pela técnica de automontagem do inglês Layer-by-Layer (LbL) ou pela técnica de Langmuir-Blodgett (LB). A tese se divide em três partes: a primeira parte teve como objetivo o estudo e a aplicação de filmes finos nanoestruturados, contendo enzima tirosinase (Tyr), em biossensores para detecção de moléculas antioxidantes (polifenóis), visando sua aplicação na indústria de alimentos, em especial a de vinhos tintos. Foi utilizada a técnica LB para a imobilização da enzima Tyr sobre substratos sólidos (ITO ou Pt) sem que a enzima perdesse sua atividade. A enzima foi incorporada a filmes LB mistos de ácido araquídico (AA) e bisftalocianina de lutécio (LuPc2) pela injeção na subfase aquosa. A LuPc2 foi usada como mediadora de transferência de cargas. Foi possível a detecção do composto fenólico representativo pirrogalol. Estudos de voltametría cíclica demonstraram que o biossensor possui uma boa reprodutibilidade com desvio padrão de ca. 2% (n = 4), limite dinâmico de até 400 \'mü\'M (potencial aplicado de 0,4 V; R2: 0,993), sensibilidade de 1,54 \'mü\'A.\'mü\'M POT.-1/\'CM POT.2\' e limite de detecção (critério 3\'sigma\'0/m) de 4,87 x \'10 POT.-2\' \'mü\'M (n = 10). A segunda parte do trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento de sensores eletroquímicos baseados em filmes automontados LbL de hidrocloreto de polialilamina (PAH) e LuPc2. A motivação para o estudo foi a troca do material biológico (Tyr) pela LuPc2, a qual possui poder catalítico e relativa seletividade, capaz de mimetizar algumas proteínas. A LuPc2 foi utilizada como enzima artificial na quantificação de catecol e pirogalol como representantes de compostos fenólicos. Em medidas de voltametria, o sensor automontado de PAH/LuPc2 apresentou boa linearidade (R2 = 0,992) na faixa de até 500 \'mü\'M, com uma sensibilidade de 90 nA/\'mü\'M e limite de detecção de 8 \'mü\'M. Nas medidas cronoamperométricas, os sensores apresentaram uma ampla faixa linear (R2 = 0,994; tempo de resposta de 60 s) de até 900 \'mü\'M e limite de detecção (LD) de 37,5 x \'10 POT.-8\' M (sensibilidade de 20 nA/\'mü\'M) para o catecol. Por fim, estudou-se a fabricação de filmes LbL baseados em dendrímero poli(propileno imina) (PPID) e metaloftalocianina tetrasulfonada de níquel (NiTsPc) em sensores baseados em transistores de efeito de campo (FET). Neste caso, os filmes foram utilizados como membranas sensíveis na aplicação de sensores de pH e \'H IND.2\'O IND.2\'. Também se demonstra a importância de se utilizar estruturas dendríticas nesse tipo de filme, comparando estes filmes com aqueles contendo um polieletrólito fraco linear (PAH). Foi dada ênfase à fabricação dos filmes pela técnica LbL e sua aplicação em sensores do tipo FET de porta estendida e separada (SEGFET). Filmes LbL baseados em enzimas artificiais se mostram bastante promissores em aplicações reais por serem relativamente baratos e simples, possibilitando o uso de variados tipos de materiais. A utilização desses filmes em dispositivos baseados em estruturas SEGFET possibilita a miniaturização dos sensores bem como sua produção unindo técnicas convencionais de fabricação microeletrônica. / This thesis describes the preparation, characterization and development of biosensors based on nanostructured films containing immobilized enzymes and metallophthalocyanines. The films were obtained using the Layer-by-Layer (LbL) or Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) techniques. In the first part of the thesis we describe the development of nanostructured thin films containing the enzyme tyrosinase (Tyr) and their use as biosensors for detection of antioxidants molecules (polyphenols), which find applications in the food industry, specialy red wines. The enzyme was incorporated into the mixed LB films of arachidic acid (AA) and lutetium bisphthalocyanine (LuPc2) by injection into the aqueous subphase followed by transference to ITO or Pt electrodes. The representative phenolic compound molecule to be detected was pyrogallol. Cyclic voltammetry studies shown that the biosensor response is highly reproducible with a standard deviation of ca. 2% (n = 4), dynamic range up to 400 \'mü\'M (applied potential of 0.4 V; R2: 0.993), sensitivity of 1.54 \'mü\'A/\'mü\'M.\'CM POT.2\' and detection limit (3 \'sigma\'0/m criteria) of 4.87 x \'10 POT.-2\' \'mü\'M (n = 10). The second part of this thesis focus on the development of electrochemical sensors based on LbL films of poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) and LuPc2. The purpose of the study was to change the biological material (Tyr) by LuPc2. LuPc2 was used as an artificial enzyme in the quantification of catechol and pyrogallol as representative of phenolic compounds. In voltammetric measurements, the LbL PAH/LuPc2 sensors presented good linearity (R2 = 0.992) in the range up to 500 \'mü\'M with a sensitivity of 90 nA/\'mü\'M and detection limit of 8 \'mü\'M. As revealed by chronoamperometry measurements, the sensors exhibited a wide linear range (R2 = 0.994; response time of 60 s) up to 900 M and detection limit of 37.5 × \'10 POT.-8\' \'mü\'M (sensibility of 20 nA/\'mü\'M) for catechol. Finally, we investigated the fabrication of LbL films based on poly(propylene imine) dendrimer (PPID) and nickel tetrasulfonated phthalocyanine (NiTsPc) as active elements in devices based on field effect transistors (FET). The films were used as sensitive membranes applied as pH and \'H IND.2\'O IND.2\' sensors. It was shown the importance on the LbL technique and its application in FET-based sensors such as the separated and extended gate FET (SEGFET). LBL films based on artificial enzymes exhibit great promise in real applications due to their low cost and simplicity. The use of these films in devices based on SEGFET structures allows miniaturization of the sensors and their production combining conventional microelectronics fabrication and nanotechnological tools.

Les travaux présentés dans ce manuscrit concernent le développement d‘une approche originale permettant la détermination de plusieurs composés (principalement aflatoxines et pesticides organophosphorés), à l‘aide de biocapteurs électrochimiques basés sur l‘inhibition de l‘acétylcholinestérase. Dans un premier temps, un nouveau biocapteur potentiométrique utilisant des transistors à effet de champ sensibles au pH (pH-FETs) comme transducteurs a été développé pour la détermination de l‘aflatoxine B1 (AFB1) et différent paramètres d‘élaboration et de fonctionnement du biocapteur ont été optimisés. Le biocapteur proposé est caractérisé par une stabilité opérationnelle élevée and bonne reproductibilité du signal en cours d‘utilisation et de stockage. Le biocapteur a ensuite été évalué pour l‘analyse d‘échantillons réels (blé, sésame, noix et pois) et une simulation mathématique de la réponse du biocapteur potentiométrique à l‘AFB1 a été proposée pour la première fois et validée. Dans un deuxième temps, un biocapteur conductimétrique utilisant des microélectrodes interdigitées en or a été développé. La sensibilité de ce biocapteur aux aflatoxines ainsi qu‘à d‘autres classes de substances toxiques, tels que les pesticides organophosphorés, les métaux lourds, les glycoalkaloïdes, et les surfactants, a été déterminée. Une nouvelle procédure originale, permettant la détermination sélective de toxines multiclasses par application successive de solutions de réactivation visant spécifiquement des inhibiteurs irréversibles ou réversibles, a été finalement proposée. En utilisant cette méthode, il a été montré que les biocapteurs enzymatiques pouvaient être appliqués à l‘analyse des aflatoxines et des pesticides organophosphorés, ainsi qu‘à la détermination de la toxicité globale des échantillons / Investigations reported in this manuscript are focused on the development of an original approach for the detection of several toxic compounds, mainly aflatoxins and organophosphorus pesticides, using acetylcholinesterase (AChE)-based inhibitory electrochemical biosensors. In a first step, a new potentiometric biosensor using pH Sensitive Field-Effect Transistors (pH-FETs) as transducers was investigated for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) determination and different elaboration and working parameters were optimized. The proposed biosensor was characterized by high operational stability and reproducibility of the signal during the work as well as during the storage. The biosensor was further evaluated for real samples analysis (wheat, sesame, walnuts and peas) and a mathematical simulation of the potentiometric biosensor response to aflatoxin B1 was proposed for the first time and validated. In a second step, a conductometric biosensor using interdigitated gold microelectrodes was developed. The sensitivity of the biosensor to aflatoxins and other classes of toxic substances, such as organophosphorus pesticides, heavy metals ions, glycoalkaloids, and surfactants, was determined. A new and original procedure, enabling the selective determination of multiclass toxins by applying successive reactivation solutions targeting either irreversible or reversible inhibitors, was finally proposed. Using this method, the electrochemical enzyme inhibitory biosensors could be applied to the analysis of aflatoxins and organophosphorus pesticides, as well as for the determination of total toxicity of the samples