This thesis examines the relationship between physical capabilities and the mental simulation of actions. Behavioural research suggests that the ability to understand of an action is directly related to the ability to perform it, an idea consistent with the Embodied theory of Cognition. The present work aims to further explore the relationship between the body and cognition and investigate whether the restriction of an action or movement disrupts the simulation of movements during motor imagery tasks, which have been shown to elicit motor activations upon performance. This theory was investigated in a series of seven motor simulation experiments during which participants’ movements were restrained. Studies 1-3 investigated simulations that occur unconsciously through the observation of manipulatable objects. Studies 4-6 investigated simulations that occur during performance of mental transformations of manipulatable objects and body part stimuli. The results of these studies found no significant difference in performance when movement was restricted compared to when free to move. Study 7 investigated simulations that occur consciously through the observation of actions performed by another individual and found a significant effect of restriction on performance. The findings of these studies indicate that the ability to perform a movement is required for the accurate simulation of actions when an action is being observed but not when a simulated action is required on a stationary object, which suggests a variable relationship between the body and cognitive processes. This thesis offers an interesting contribution to the Embodied Cognition debate and provides a further insight into the relationship between the motor and visual systems.

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Embodied accounts contend that word meaning is grounded in sensory-motor representation. In support of this view, research has found rapid motor priming effects for words like eagle or shoe, which differ as to whether they are typically associated with an up or down spatial direction. These priming effects are held to be the result of motor representations evoked as an obligatory part of understanding the meaning of a word. In a series of experiments, we show that prime words associated with up or down spatial locations produce vertical perturbations in the horizontal movements of a computer mouse, but that these effects are contingent either on directing conscious attention to the spatial meaning of the word, or on the inclusion of the primed spatial direction in the response set, and that this is true even for strongly spatial words such as up and down. These results show that the motor representations associated with such words are not automatically evoked during reading. We discuss implications for claims that spatial representations reflect our embodied perception of the world. / Graduate

This thesis intends to advance educational research by providing exploratory insights about the roles of, and relationships between, the actions, language, and gestures of college and elementary-aged students surrounding measurement estimation. To the best of my knowledge, prior research has examined the role of speech and gestures as they relate to areas of mathematics such as algebra and geometry, however, this work has not been extended to the area of measurement. Similarly, language and gesture have been explored but the three-way interplay between actions during problem-solving, and the language and gestures observed during explanations after problem solving has not been investigated in mathematics. To actualize the findings from this research in practice, this thesis uses the findings from two studies on behavior during measurement tasks to propose text and image support for an elementary-aged measurement game, EstimateIT!, to support students as they practice how to measure objects and develop conceptual skills through embodied game play. Specifically, this thesis intends to provide 1) a synthesis of the work on gestures in mathematics as well as the research methods used to study gestures, 2) a coding guide to analyze the gestures of mathematics learners, as well as their actions and language, 3) an application of the coding guide to explore the behavior of college and elementary students during measurement estimation tasks, and 4) proposals for action-guiding support for EstimateIT! to help elementary students develop and reinforce an understanding of measurement during gameplay based on the more mature strategies demonstrated by college students as they complete similar tasks.

Temperature-related words such as “hot” and “cold” are often used to describe impulsive and calculated behaviors, respectively. These metaphoric connotations of thermal concepts raise the question as to whether temperature, psychological states and decision making are related to each other, and if so, how. The current research examines these questions and finds support for a relationship. Across four laboratory experiments and two field studies, I demonstrate that both hot temperature primes (e.g., pictures, words, therapeutic packs) and hot ambient temperature trigger decision outcomes in line with the metaphoric association between hot temperature and impulsivity. I suggest that the theory of embodied cognition provides an explanation for these findings.

Embodied cognition theorists suggest that cognition is bodily based and that the brain developed due to interaction with the environment, and thus evolved to facilitate sensorimotor processing. As such, one goal of embodied cognition research is to determine how the interaction between the body and the environment affects the storage and processing of semantic information. Recent neuroimaging research has shown that the sensorimotor and premotor cortices are activated somatotopically when responding to action-related stimuli. In addition, behavioural research has provided evidence in support of the theory of embodied cognition, in that the sensorimotor properties of a stimulus have been shown to affect performance on language tasks. The goal of the current research was to provide a novel and comprehensive examination of the theory of embodied cognition through the combination of multiple experimental paradigms. Several functional magnetic resonance imaging and behavioural experiments on healthy participants were carried out, as well as a behavioural study of two individuals who have undergone either a left or right hemispherectomy. The results from the functional neuroimaging experiments demonstrated that there are common regions of activation between motor movements and semantic processing, whereby sensorimotor and premotor regions that are responsible for arm and leg motor movements are also recruited when responding to arm- and leg-related action semantic knowledge. Thus these results are consistent with the theory of embodied cognition, suggesting that the motor system is involved in the processing of action-related semantic information. The behavioural results were also consistent with previous research showing that pictures have privileged access to action-related semantic knowledge. Additionally, the behavioural results with hemispherectomy patients provided evidence regarding the necessity versus sufficiency of the left and right hemispheres when responding to arm- and leg-related semantic knowledge. Finally, given that words rated as higher in body-object interaction were responded to faster than words rated as lower in body-object interaction, these results show evidence that language processing is grounded in bodily interaction and sensorimotor processing. Together, the results further advance the theory of embodied cognition, and moreover, provide an in-depth analysis of how arm- and leg-related stimuli are processed dependent upon presentation format.

Embodied cognition theorists suggest that cognition is bodily based and that the brain developed due to interaction with the environment, and thus evolved to facilitate sensorimotor processing. As such, one goal of embodied cognition research is to determine how the interaction between the body and the environment affects the storage and processing of semantic information. Recent neuroimaging research has shown that the sensorimotor and premotor cortices are activated somatotopically when responding to action-related stimuli. In addition, behavioural research has provided evidence in support of the theory of embodied cognition, in that the sensorimotor properties of a stimulus have been shown to affect performance on language tasks. The goal of the current research was to provide a novel and comprehensive examination of the theory of embodied cognition through the combination of multiple experimental paradigms. Several functional magnetic resonance imaging and behavioural experiments on healthy participants were carried out, as well as a behavioural study of two individuals who have undergone either a left or right hemispherectomy. The results from the functional neuroimaging experiments demonstrated that there are common regions of activation between motor movements and semantic processing, whereby sensorimotor and premotor regions that are responsible for arm and leg motor movements are also recruited when responding to arm- and leg-related action semantic knowledge. Thus these results are consistent with the theory of embodied cognition, suggesting that the motor system is involved in the processing of action-related semantic information. The behavioural results were also consistent with previous research showing that pictures have privileged access to action-related semantic knowledge. Additionally, the behavioural results with hemispherectomy patients provided evidence regarding the necessity versus sufficiency of the left and right hemispheres when responding to arm- and leg-related semantic knowledge. Finally, given that words rated as higher in body-object interaction were responded to faster than words rated as lower in body-object interaction, these results show evidence that language processing is grounded in bodily interaction and sensorimotor processing. Together, the results further advance the theory of embodied cognition, and moreover, provide an in-depth analysis of how arm- and leg-related stimuli are processed dependent upon presentation format.

Temperature-related words such as “hot” and “cold” are often used to describe impulsive and calculated behaviors, respectively. These metaphoric connotations of thermal concepts raise the question as to whether temperature, psychological states and decision making are related to each other, and if so, how. The current research examines these questions and finds support for a relationship. Across four laboratory experiments and two field studies, I demonstrate that both hot temperature primes (e.g., pictures, words, therapeutic packs) and hot ambient temperature trigger decision outcomes in line with the metaphoric association between hot temperature and impulsivity. I suggest that the theory of embodied cognition provides an explanation for these findings.

This thesis looks at a relatively new line of research in Cognitive Science – embodied cognition. Its relation to the computational-representational paradigm, primarily symbolicism, is extensively discussed. It is argued that embodied cognition is compatible with the established paradigm but challenges its research focus and traditionally assumed segregation of cognition from bodily and worldly activities Subsequently the impact of embodied cognition on philosophy of Cognitive Science is considered. The second chapter defends the applicability of mechanistic explanation to cases of embodied cognition. Further, it argues that a proposed alternative, dynamic systems theory, is not a substitute to the mechanistic approach. The last chapter critically examines the thesis that mind is extended beyond the bodily boundary and into the world. It is concluded that arguments in favour of the extended mind thesis are inadequate. Considerations in favour of the orthodox view that the does not “leak” out into the world are also presented.