Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are typified by deficits in social communication, including flat and disorganized affect. Previous research investigating affect production in ASD has demonstrated that individuals on the spectrum show impairments in posing, but not mimicking facial expressions. These findings thus point to a deficit in ASD individuals’ integration of sensory/motor facets in the cognitive representation of a facial expression, and not a deficit in motor or sensory ability. The goal of the current project was to validate a computer-based intervention that targets facial expression production using methods ground in embodied cognition to connect between the sensory and motor facets of facial displays. The “FaceMaze” is a pac-man like game in which players navigate through a maze of obstacles, and are required to produce high-quality facial expressions in order to overcome obstacles. FaceMaze relies on the Computer Expression Recognition Toolbox (CERT) program, which analyzes user’s real-time facial expressions and provides feedback based on the Facial Action Coding System (FACS). In the first part of this project, the FaceMaze was validated using a typically developing (TD) adult population. In Experiment 1, participants were prompted to produce expressions of “Happy”, “Angry” and “Surprise” before and after playing FaceMaze. Electromyography (EMG) analysis targeted three expression-specific facial muscles: Zygomaticus Major (ZM, Happy), Corrugator Supercilii (CS, Angry) and Obicularis Oculi (OO, Surprise). Results showed that relative to pre-game productions, an increase in activation in the ZM for happy expressions, and an increase in CS response for angry expressions was observed after playing the corresponding version of FaceMaze. Critically, no change in muscle activity for the control expression “Surprise” was observed. In Experiment 2, the perceived quality of facial expressions after FaceMaze/ CERT training was compared to those produced after traditional FACS training. “Happy,” “Angry” and “Surprise” expressions were videotaped before and after the FaceMaze game and FACS training, and productions were assessed by a group of naïve raters. Whereas observers rated post-Happy expressions as happier for both FaceMaze and FACS, only the post-Angry expressions in the FaceMaze condition were rated as angrier and less happy after training. In the second half of this project, the efficacy of the FaceMaze was validated by children with ASD, and age- and IQ-matched, typically developing (TD) controls. In Experiment 3 (in press), children were asked to pose “Happy “, “Angry”, and “Surprise” expressions before and after game-play. Expressions were video-recorded and presented to naïve raters who were required to assess video-clips on expression quality. Findings show that the ASD groups’ post-FaceMaze “Happy” and “Angry” expressions were higher in quality than their pre-FaceMaze productions. TD children also showed higher expression quality ratings for the “Angry” expression post-gameplay, but no enhancement of the “Happy” expression was found after FaceMaze. Moreover, the ASD groups’ post-FaceMaze expressions were rated as equal in quality to those of the TD group. These findings not only underscore the fidelity of the FaceMaze game in enhancing facial expression production, but also provide support for a theory of disordered embodied cognition in ASD. / Graduate / igordon@uvic.ca

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / In this study I investigate what performance as a medium can contribute to our understanding of shame's affect. Given the difficulty of defining and concretising affect according to set parameters and outcomes, critical and dynamic debates about its nature continue. Most recently, New Affect theorists such as Brian Massumi have explored the role of the body in affective meaning-making. Our current social context requires a critical engagement with the forms of affect in order to achieve a deeper understanding of the intangible structures of power and oppression, as well as of desire, interest and pleasure. My aim is to determine the ways in which performance – as a medium through which to navigate an often difficult, evasive and deeply subjective experience – can facilitate a knowledge of how bodies experience, relate to and process shame.

Three studies examined the impact of social stimuli on visual attention. Chapter two confirmed that, hands, feet, and bodies exhibited equivalent attentional pull in a dot probe detection, two-alternative forced choice paradigm. Chapter three utilized a Posner style covert attentional cueing paradigm to examine the impact of directed human action (throwing a ball) on spatial attention. We manipulated the effect of context by including social (humans) or non-social (trees) flanking images and probed the uniquely social nature of the processing in this task by including individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a group with known social deficits, as a comparison group. We also manipulated predictability using predictive and non-predictive cue blocks between subjects. Participants with and without ASD demonstrated similar cueing effects when cues were predictive. ASD participants showed no cueing advantage when cues were non-predictive while neurotypical participants experienced cueing only in social contexts when cues were non-predictive – consistent with automatic social processing. Intelligence as measured by the FSIQ from the WAIS 4 was also analyzed. Unexpectedly, higher IQ resulted in slower RTs with the ASD group. We examined this relationship further by examining severity of diagnosis measured by ADOS-G and FSIQ in participants with ASD. In a final study we looked at the relationship between RT and eye movements in visual search for social stimuli like faces and bodies. Consistent with previous results, faces resulted in faster RTs when they were the targets. They also elicited more first fixations and shorter fixation durations. Faces were not, however, more distracting when they appeared in irrelevant singleton frames. Unexpectedly, the bodies images used in this experiment did not result in attentional capture. Possible reasons for this are discussed. / Dissertation / Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) / As humans, other humans are among the most important things we visually perceive. They are sources of threat, alliance, uncertainty, and love. Because we cannot attend to all of the things we see at once, evolution has prepared us with mental traits that favour rapid processing of complex social scenes. Across three studies, we examine how other humans affect our attention. In the first study we confirm that human bodies and their parts (like feet or hands) are equally capable of drawing our attention. Our second study examines the ability of dynamic human poses to direct our attention in the direction of the depicted action. We note that an implied social interaction leads to better performance among typically developing individuals, but leads to deficits in individuals with autism spectrum disorder, a condition characterized by social delays and impairments. Finally, we look at how important social images, like human faces or bodies, unconsciously attract and influence our eyes movements when searching among distracting images.

Since the cognitive revolution during the last century the mind has been conceived of as being computer-like. Like a computer, the brain was assumed to be a physical structure (hardware) upon which a computational mind (software) was built. The mind was seen as a collection of independent programs which each have their own specific tasks, or modules. These modules took sensory input "data" and transduced it into language-like representations which were used in mental computations. Recently, a new conception of the mind has developed, grounded cognition. According to this model, sensory stimulus is saved in the original format in which it was received and recalled using association mechanisms. Rather than representations being language-like they are instead multimodal. The manipulation of these multimodal representations requires processing distributed throughout the brain. A new holistic model for mental architecture has developed in which the concerted activity of the brain's modal systems produces functional systems which are intimately codependent with one another. The purpose of this thesis is to explore both the modular and multimodal theories of mental architecture. Each will be described in detail along with their supporting paradigms, cognitivism and grounded cognition. After my expositions I will offer support for my own position regarding these two theories before suggesting avenues for future research.

Past research has shown that there is a relationship between body posture and cognitive processes. However, postures used with technological devices has not been studied more extensively. The purpose of this study was to examine posture effects when using a mobile device on interpretation bias, mood, and physical tension. Each participant was randomly assigned one of three conditions: sitting slumped, sitting upright, or lying down. Participants were asked to complete the Scrambled Sentences Task (SST), a task of unscrambling emotional and neutral sentences, to measure their interpretation bias. Additional questions were asked to measure the participant's physical tension and mood. Results suggested no significant differences in interpretation bias depending on posture. There was no significant difference in the performance of unscrambling emotional sentences compared to neutral ones for sitting slumped and sitting upright. When lying down, participants unscrambled fewer neutral sentences compared to emotional ones. Physical tension was found to be a mediator for the relationship between posture (slumped and upright) and mood. The results of this study provide insight of possible confounding variables influencing the relationship between posture and mood.It additionally showed that emotional content is processed differently compared to neutral content when lying down. Further research is needed to understand how physical tension caused by posture being altered when using mobile device affects psychological well-being.

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This study is a theoretical inquiry into the meaning potentials of rhythm in improvisation, with implications for improvisational music therapy. A review of music therapy literature regarding assessment and treatment reveals that improvisation is a widely applied music therapy method, but that rhythm--found universally in all forms of clinical improvisational processes--has received little attention. Theories from the areas of music philosophy, psychology of music, social psychology of music, musicological studies of jazz, and music therapy are explicated and implications for potential meanings of rhythm for improvisation and improvisational music therapy are described. Concepts that are foundational to the ways that the various theories find meaning in music include symbolism, metaphorical conceptualization, and interpersonal interactions. Theoretical foci for analysis include improvised rhythm (i.e., the rhythmic products), an improviser or co-improviser's processes while playing, and the perspective of a listener. Differences between solo improvisation and co-improvisation processes are considered. An integral theory of rhythm in improvisation is proposed along with clinical implications. Potential benefits of the study for music therapy and musicology are proposed and considerations for future investigations regarding the topics of rhythm and improvisation are articulated. / Music Therapy

The thesis addresses current issues in experiential marketing research. More precisely, it focuses on the impact experiences earlier in life have on the preference towards a brand and its meaning later in life, as well as the influence of audio-visual product experiences on the perceived haptic evaluation of products. The thesis uses a wide selection of theories, from conditioning to embodied cognition and multisensory enhancement and provides novel contributions to marketing research.:I. The Influence of Brand Experiences onto Brand Preference, Brand Meaning and Haptic Product Evaluation - Essays in Experiential Marketing Research 1. The Relevance of Experiences in Marketing and Marketing Research 2. Paper A 2.1 Gaps & Research Questions 2.2 Summary 2.3 Contributions 2.4 Future Research Directions 3. Paper B 3.1 Gaps & Research Questions 3.2 Summary 3.3 Contributions 3.4 Future Research Directions 4. Paper C 4.1 Gaps & Research Questions 4.2 Summary 4.3 Contributions 4.4 Future Research Directions 5. References II. How Memorable Experiences Influence Brand Preference III. Meaningful Experiences – an Embodied Cognition Perspective on Brand Meaning Co-Creation IV. Touching Sounds - Improving the Haptic Evaluation of a Product that cannot be Touched but Seen and Heard 1. Introduction 2. Theoretical Background 2.1 Product Evaluation and Touch 2.2 Haptic Imagery as a Surrogate for Actual Touch 2.3 Hypotheses 3. Study Designs 3.1 Overview of Studies 3.2 Stimuli and Pretests 4. STUDY 1: Audio-visual texture evaluation through sound 4.1 Methodology 4.2 Dependent Measures 4.3 Results 4.4 Discussion 5. STUDY 2: Audio-visual hardness evaluation through sound 5.1 Methodology 5.2 Dependent Measures 5.3 Results 5.4 Discussion 6. General Discussion 7. References

This dissertation investigated the meanings students from beginner jazz ensembles ascribe to learning jazz improvisation through Dalcroze-inspired activities. Over the course of ten weeks, students from three respective beginner jazz ensembles were exposed to Dalcroze-inspired activities as the medium for learning to improvise. The sessions were held on a weekly basis, facilitated by the researcher. Hermeneutic phenomenology guided the research procedures. In-depth interviews, personal reflections, participant reflection essays as well as video recordings were the methods of data collection. Through the use of Atlas.ti 7, the data were organized and analysed by means of coding and categorisation, which led to the identification of five themes. The five themes that emerged from the data analysis were: feeling the music in my body, supporting development as a jazz musician, building character, building relationships, and stimulating and motivating learning. This study provides an understanding of the connection between jazz improvisation and Dalcroze Eurhythmics as well as how students experience learning jazz improvisation through Dalcrozeinspired activities. Through this understanding this study proposes a more holistic approach to jazz improvisation teaching that can inform further research and application of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in jazz pedagogy. / MMus (Musicology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015