International mass sports gatherings like the FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football Association) World Cup Soccer and Olympics can cause great challenges to local healthcare systems and emergency medical services. History has shown that disasters do occur during these events, whether on a small or large scale. Disaster Management Practitioners from the public health perspective widely recognize that poor planning and a range of other underlying factors, create conditions of vulnerability. These result in insufficient capacity or measures to reduce hazards’ potentially negative consequences. The eThekwini District has to be prepared in the event of a mass disaster. Pre-empting and planning for disasters will lead to the safety and security of our citizens. The aim of this study was to undertake a baseline survey (in a total number of eleven public sector hospitals) to assess the state of hospital readiness, medical preparedness, and emergency care in preparation for the 2010 FIFA World Cup Soccer in the eThekwini District. A general assessment tool in the form of a standard questionnaire, and a walkthrough visit with a checklist, was used to collect data. There is no previous study conducted at the eThekwini District to assess requirements for an international event in terms of a mass disaster. South Africa is a developing country, and this was the first time any developing country had hosted a sporting event on such a large magnitude thus there are no international standards on sports disaster management by any other developing countries to generalise to eThekwini District. The current disaster management operational plan that is being used for the World Cup is based on a United Kingdom integrated management philosophy tool. The study herein adopted a public health approach and incorporates the Yokohama Strategy within its tool along with the use of HMIMMS and MIMMS in the assessment of the clinical criteria. The perceived minimum requirements suggested by the hospitals and a Provincial Task Team, from the Provincial Health Disaster Management office, was used as a guideline. The study showed that although disaster plans and policies are in situ, there still exists a need for resources to be directed toward skills training, attraction and retention of healthcare professionals, revitalisation of emergency and theatre areas and the commissioning of more isolation units. The results of the study would enable the District Office to note any shortcomings and lack of resources in public sector hospitals. The study outcome would be important for the implementation of any strategic planning to aid the hospitals in preparation for mass disasters that may occur during the 2010 FIFA World Cup Soccer. / Thesis (M.Med.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

Thesis (M.Tech.: Emergency Medical Care)-Durban University of Technology, 2007 xiv, 116 leaves / The Professional Board for Emergency Care Practitioners (PBECP), a division of the Health Professions Council of South Africa, regulates the scope of practice and publishes guidelines and protocols that advanced life support (ALS) practitioners are required to follow. These define an acceptable, standardised approach to each commonly encountered emergency. Non compliance with the guidelines and protocols regularly occurs, which could impact on the quality of care delivered and may result in further injury or death of the patient. This study investigated the reasons for non-compliance by ALS practitioners and explored how compliance could be improved.

[Truncated abstract] This thesis describes the epidemiology and outcome of acute asthma managed by ambulance paramedics, in the metropolitan area of Perth, Western Australia, for the period of 1990 to 2001. The primary aim of this thesis was to determine demographic, socio-economic and clinical trends for ambulance transported patients with asthma, their outcomes and how they have changed over time. The Perth metropolitan area, located in the south-western corner of Western Australia (WA), accounts for 72% of the state’s population, which was approximately 1.3 million people at Census 2001. This thesis was structured around the analysis of twelve years of St John Ambulance (WA) data. Ambulance data was linked using probabilistic matching techniques to the Western Australian Data Linkage System, custodian of links to thirty five years of morbidity and mortality data of the state’s population . . . Unique geography, a monopolistic ambulance service and access to extensive linked data provided ideal conditions for this population-based epidemiological study of patients with asthma who were transported by ambulance. Observed trends in age and gender characteristics of patients, ambulance codes and temporal variables appear to be consistent over time. Monitoring trends in the use of ventilation procedures recorded in hospital data provided useful indicators for describing the epidemiology of severe, lifethreatening asthma in the prehospital setting. Findings from this study were found to be consistent with published literature.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oklahoma. / Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph.D. in Nursing) -- University of Colorado Denver, 2008. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 100-107). Free to UCD Anschutz Medical Campus. Online version available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations;

Thesis (M.Tech.: Emergency Medical Care)-Durban University of Technology, 2007 xiv, 116 leaves / The Professional Board for Emergency Care Practitioners (PBECP), a division of the Health Professions Council of South Africa, regulates the scope of practice and publishes guidelines and protocols that advanced life support (ALS) practitioners are required to follow. These define an acceptable, standardised approach to each commonly encountered emergency. Non compliance with the guidelines and protocols regularly occurs, which could impact on the quality of care delivered and may result in further injury or death of the patient. This study investigated the reasons for non-compliance by ALS practitioners and explored how compliance could be improved.

Background: Changing service demands require United Kingdom ambulance services to redefine their role and response strategies, in order to reduce unnecessary Emergency Department attendances. Treat and Refer guidelines have been developed with this aim in mind. However, these guidelines have been developed in the absence of reliable evidence or guiding mid-range theory. This has resulted in inconsistencies in clinical practice. One condition frequently included in Treat and Refer guidelines is hypoglycaemia. Therefore this thesis aimed to investigate prehospital hypoglycaemic emergencies in order to develop an evidence base for future interventions and guideline development. Research approach: A pragmatic and inductive applied health services research approach was employed. Multiple methods were used in a sequential explanatory design. Three linked studies were undertaken with the results of previous studies informing the development of the next. Study one: A scoping review of prehospital treatment of hypoglycaemic events. Aims: i) To describe the demographics of the patient population requiring ambulance service assistance for hypoglycaemic emergencies; ii) To determine the extent to which post-hypoglycaemic patients with diabetes, who are prescribed oral hypoglycaemic agents (OHA), experience repeat hypoglycaemic events (RHE) after being treated in the prehospital environment. Methods: A scoping literature review was conducted using an overlapping retrieval strategy that included both published and unpublished literature. Findings: Twenty-three papers and other relevant material were included. Hypoglycaemia related ambulance calls account for 1.3% to 5.2% of ambulance calls internationally. Transportation rates varied between studies (25%-73%). Repeat hypoglycaemic emergencies are experienced by 2-7% of patients within 48 hours. There was insufficient detail to determine any relationship between repeat events and OHA. The low quality of included papers means that the results should be cautiously interpreted. The safety of leaving patients on OHA at home post hypoglycaemic emergency is unknown. Consequently patients taking OHAs who experience a hypoglycaemic emergency should be transported to hospital for observation. There was a lack of knowledge about the Scottish demographics of the patient population. Study two: A retrospective cross-sectional observational study of diabetes related emergency calls. Aims: To investigate i) the patient demographics and characteristics of hypoglycaemia related emergency calls; ii) the incidence of repeat hypoglycaemic events; and iii) the factors associated with emergency calls that result in individuals being left at home. Methods: A retrospective observational cross-sectional study conducted using Medical Priority Dispatch System® call data from West of Scotland Ambulance Control Centre over a 12 month period. Data were extracted on age, gender, dispatch code, time of call, deprivation category, and immediate outcome (home or hospital). Multiple regression analysis was used to determine predictors of remaining at home. Findings: 1319 calls for hypoglycaemia were received. Patient demographics were similar to the scoping review findings. Most patients remained at home (N = 916 vs N = 380; p < .001). RHE’s were experience by 3.1% within 48 hours, and 10.6% within two weeks. The most significant independent predictor for patients remaining at home was a prior call to the ambulance service (OR of 2.4 [95%CI 1.5 to 3.7]). Patients’ reasons for remaining at home and the causes of subsequent severe events are unknown. It is likely that non-clinical factors may explain some of this behaviour. Study 3: Investigating patients’ experiences of prehospital hypoglycaemic care. Aim: To investigate the experiences of patients who are attended by ambulance clinicians for a hypoglycaemic emergency. Methods: In-depth interviews with adults with diabetes who had recently experienced a hypoglycaemic emergency treated by ambulance clinicians. Participants were recruited from Greater Glasgow and Clyde and Lanarkshire Health Board areas. Data were analysed using Framework Analysis. Findings: Twenty six patients were interviewed. Three key themes were developed. Firstly, an explanation for help seeking behaviour; patients’ impaired awareness of hypoglycaemia as well as the inability of friends and relatives to cope can contribute to an ambulance call-out. Secondly, the perceptions of ambulance service care; patients felt the service provided was good; however ambulance clinicians’ advice was inconsistent. Thirdly, the influences on uptake of follow-up care; patient preferences for follow-up care were influenced by previous experiences of home, hospital and primary care. Post-hoc analysis identified three psychological theories that may explain these findings and provide a useful basis for intervention development: Common Sense Model (Leventhal et al, 1998); Health Belief Model (Rosenstock, 1966); Ley’s cognitive hypothesis model of communication (Ley and Llewelyn, 1995; 1981). Conclusion: Most people treated for severe hypoglycaemia by ambulance clinicians remain at home and do not follow-up their care. A few experience repeat hypoglycaemic emergencies. Key causal, but modifiable factors, contributing to this include:- impaired awareness of hypoglycaemia; inconsistent delivery of ambulance clinician referral advice; and patients’ perceptions of the costs and benefits of follow-up care. Ambulance services cannot address all these factors in isolation. The studies in this thesis have generated an evidence base and identified plausible candidate theories. This will support the future development of novel interventions to improve severe hypoglycaemic emergency follow-up.

Abstract Emergency medical services (EMS) are designed to provide prompt response, on-scene treatment and transport for definitive care in patients with acute illness or injury. In recent years, the growing number of missions for non-urgent matters has challenged emergency care to design risk assessment protocols and tools to support decision-making and resource management at both dispatch and on-scene. The present study was designed to examine the efficacy of a criteria based dispatch protocol and National Early Warning Score (NEWS) in the Finnish EMS system. In addition, the aim of the research was to obtain data on patient allocation and mortality in the Northern Finnish population. The study data included 13,354 EMS missions from a six-month cohort (1.1.2014 - 30.6.2014) of prehospital emergency patients in two hospital districts – Kainuu and Länsi-Pohja – in Northern Finland, using a retrospective, observational design. Prehospital data including patient clinical physiological variables were combined with the national Finnish registries (Care Registry for Health Care, Intensive Care Consortium Database and Cause of Death Registry) in order to examine risk assessment in EMS and prehospital patient outcomes. Based on the result, the risk assessment at the dispatch was correct in 67.5% of the cases and four out of ten EMS missions did not lead to transportation by an ambulance. The use of the Finnish dispatch protocol resulted in an overall rate of 23% of over-triage and a 9% rate of under-triage. The highest NEWS category showed a good sensitivity for 1-day mortality but failed to adequately discriminate patients in need of intensive care or who died within 30-days in a large, unselected, typical EMS population. In conclusion, the criteria based dispatch protocol resulted in over-triage of a quarter of missions and in a significant rate of EMS missions without ambulance transportation. In addition, the predictive value of prehospital NEWS regarding the patient´s risk of death and need for intensive care was low. / Tiivistelmä Ensihoitopalvelu on suunniteltu tarjoamaan nopeaa vastetta, paikalla tapahtuvaa hoitoa ja kuljetusta lopulliseen hoitopaikkaan potilaille, joilla on akuutti sairaus tai vamma. Viime vuosien lisääntyneet yhteydenotot ei-kiireellisissä asioissa on johtanut riskinarviotyökalujen kehittämiseen tukemaan päätöksentekoa ja resurssienhallintaa hätäpuhelun aikana ja tapahtumapaikalla. Tässä tutkimuksessa tarkasteltiin kriteeripohjaista hätäpuhelun käsittelyä sekä varhaisen varoituspistejärjestelmän (NEWS) tehokkuutta suomalaisessa ensihoitojärjestelmässä. Lisäksi tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli saada tietoa ensihoitopotilaiden hoitotuloksista ja kuolleisuudesta Pohjois-Suomessa. Tutkimukseen sisältyi 13 354 ensihoitotehtävää kuuden kuukauden kohortista (1.1.2014 – 30.6.2014) kahden sairaanhoitopiirin alueelta – Kainuu ja Länsi-Pohja – Pohjois-Suomessa käyttämällä retrospektiivistä havainnoivaa tutkimusmenetelmää. Ensihoidon aikana kerätty tieto, mukaan lukien potilaan kliiniset fysiologiset arvot, yhdistettiin kansallisiin rekistereihin (hoitoilmoitusrekisteri, tehohoitokonsortion laatutietokanta sekä kuolinsyyrekisteri) jotta ensihoitopotilaiden riskinarviota ja hoitotuloksia voitiin tutkia. Tutkimustulosten mukaan 67.5 prosentissa tapauksista riskinarvio hätäkeskuksessa oli oikea ja neljä kymmenestä ensihoitotehtävästä ei johtanut kuljetukseen ambulanssilla. Suomalaisen hälytysprotokollan käyttö johti yliarviointiin 23 prosentissa tapauksista ja aliarviointiin 9 prosentissa tapauksista. Korkeariskin NEWS-luokan herkkyys 1-päivän kuolleisuudelle oli hyvä, mutta se ei kyennyt erottelemaan riittävän hyvin potilaita, jotka tarvitsivat tehohoitoa tai kuolivat 30 päivän sisällä suuressa ei-valikoidussa tyypillisessä ensihoitopotilasväestössä. Yhteenvetona todettiin, että kriteeripohjaisen riskinarvion käyttö johti yliarvioon neljänneksestä tapauksista sekä huomattavaan ensihoitotehtävämäärään ilman ambulanssikuljetusta. Lisäksi ensihoidon aikana käytetyn varhaisen varoituspistejärjestelmän ennusteellinen arvo potilaan kuolemanriskin ja tehohoidon tarpeeseen oli matala.

Orientador: Silvia Cristina Mangini Bocchi / Resumo: Introdução. A Rede de Atenção à Urgência e Emergência (RUE), organizada por Unidades de Pronto Atendimento (UPA) e outros serviços de urgência tem finalidade de oferecer assistência à saúde de complexidade intermediária entre a rede de Atenção Básica à Saúde (ABS) e a Rede Hospitalar. Contudo, estudos têm apontado a utilização expressiva das UPA, por usuários não urgentes, que poderiam ser atendidos em Unidades de Atenção Básica e da Família, alocadas nas regiões das UPA. Objetivo geral. Analisar a utilização de usuários, acima de 13 anos, da RUE de município do interior paulista, levando-se em consideração o aparelhamento da ABS adscrita às UPA. Método. Pesquisa epidemiológica do tipo transversal, conduzida junto à RUE, em município com 366.769 habitantes. Coletou-se dados secundários, de 2014 a 2015, referentes a atendimentos de usuários em unidades de urgência e emergência, a partir de sistema de informações, assim como realizou-se análise documental de planilhas sobre classificação de risco. Esses dados integraram o banco de dados em planilhas eletrônicas e foram analisados por estatística descritiva. Resultados. A população adscrita às UPA totalizou 328.900, a qual conta com 21 unidades da ABS, sendo 15 Unidades Básicas de Saúde (UBS) e seis Unidades Saúde da Família (USF). Dos 270.990 usuários submetidos à classificação de risco, apenas 6% configurou-se em atendimentos de emergência (vermelho) e urgência (amarela) e a maioria (94%) pouco urgente (verde... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Doutor

A Classificação de Risco foi implantada nos serviços de urgência com a finalidade de priorizar o atendimento, considerando a gravidade da situação clínica e a necessidade de cuidados imediatos dos usuários. No entanto, há dificuldades em relação ao desenvolvimento desta atividade pelo enfermeiro. Assim, o objetivo do estudo é avaliar a Classificação de Risco nos serviços de urgência na perspectiva dos enfermeiros. Para atingir essa finalidade foi realizado estudo exploratório, quantitativo, de mensuração de opinião, por meio da técnica Delphi. Foram realizadas três rodadas de aplicação de questionários interativos, que circularam entre os participantes até obtenção de consenso. Para a composição do painel dos especialistas foi utilizada a técnica de bola de neve. Os dados foram coletados por meio de questionário inserido na plataforma eletrônica SurveyMonkey®, de acesso on-line, e foram submetidos a tratamento estatístico. Foi estipulado como consenso o percentual acima ou igual a 70% das respostas. Os resultados obtidos indicaram que a Classificação de Risco é um dispositivo orientador de fluxo de usuários e de priorização da gravidade clínica, contribuindo para a diminuição do tempo de espera dos pacientes em condições clínicas graves e permitindo a redução de agravos e sequelas de pacientes urgentes. Além disso, os participantes concordaram que a classificação de risco organiza o trabalho dos enfermeiros e do serviço de urgência. A avaliação do estado clínico por meio do desenvolvimento da escuta qualificada às queixas dos usuários foi identificada como uma das ações dos enfermeiros na classificação de risco, sendo que a autonomia no exercício dessa atividade foi considerada como uma das potencialidades. Quanto à formação necessária para a realização da classificação de risco, foi indicado o conhecimento clínico como base para a tomada de decisão na priorização do atendimento ao paciente. A experiência profissional em classificação de risco foi também identificada para o julgamento da prioridade de atendimento do paciente e a capacidade intuitiva foi apontada como facilitadora. Para isso, os enfermeiros necessitam de habilidades de comunicação e de enfrentamento dos conflitos com os usuários. Dentre as fragilidades, houve consenso de discordância de que o ambiente da classificação de risco seja capaz de promover o acolhimento do paciente e de favorecer a privacidade. Foi considerado que o dimensionamento do número de enfermeiros por turno de trabalho não é suficiente para a realização da classificação de risco nos serviços de urgência, de forma que a demanda excessiva de usuários e o número inadequado de profissionais podem expor os enfermeiros da classificação de risco à elevada carga de trabalho. Também houve consenso de discordância quanto à disponibilização de capacitações periódicas aos enfermeiros sobre a utilização dos protocolos/escalas de classificação de risco. Quanto à fragilidade de ações dos enfermeiros na classificação de risco, foi indicada a falta de reavaliação da condição clínica do paciente durante o período de tempo de espera pelo atendimento, o que pode gerar agravamento da condição clínica do paciente e prejuízos ao exercício profissional do enfermeiro. Conclui-se que os enfermeiros representam suporte profissional, cognitivo e emocional na Classificação de Risco. Os resultados sinalizam que a qualificação permite que os enfermeiros continuem atuando na avaliação e classificação do risco nos serviços de urgência e permanecerão realizando essa atividade no futuro. / The Risk Classification was deployed in emergency services in order to prioritize care, considering the severity of clinical status and need immediate attention from users. However, there are difficulties regarding the development of this activity by nurses. The objective of the study is to evaluate the triage performed at emergency services, from the nurses‘ perspective. To achieve this purpose was conducted exploratory study, quantitative measurement of opinion by the Delphi technique. The subjects answered interactive questionnaires, which circulated among the participants for three rounds, until reaching consensus. The board of experts was composed using the snowball method. Data were collected using a questionnaire available on SurveyMonkey®,an online electronic platform, and submitted to statistical analysis. It was established that consensus would be reached when 70% or more answers were equal. The findings show that triage is a tool that guides patient flow and rates clinical severity, thus contributing to reducing the waiting time for patients in severe clinical conditions, and permitting to reduce complications and sequels in emergency patients. Furthermore, the participants agreed that triage organizes the work of nurses and the emergency service. It was identified that the evaluation of the clinical condition by carefully listening to the patient‘s complaints was one of the actions that nurses used to classify the risk, and that the autonomy of this activity was considered one of its strengths. As to the necessary training to conducttriage, it was indicated that clinical knowledge should be the foundation for making decisions when establishing priorities in patient care. Professional experience was also considered important in triage to judge the priority of patient care, and intuition was pointed out as a facilitator. Nurses, therefore, must have communication skills as well as coping skills to deal with the patients‘ conflicts. Among the weaknesses, there was consensus of the disagreement that the triage environment promotes patient embracement and offers privacy. It was considered that nurse staffing per working shift is insufficient to perform triage at emergency services, in a way that the excessive demand of patients and the insufficient number of professionals can expose triage nurses to high work overload. There was also consensus regarding the disagreement of the availability of periodic training for nurses on how to use triage protocols/scales. Regarding the weaknessof the triage nurses‘ practice, it was indicated there was a lack of reevaluations of the patient‘s clinical condition during the waiting time, which could worsen the patient‘s clinical condition and harm the nurses‘ practice. In conclusion, nurses represent professional, cognitive and emotional support to triage. The findings indicate that qualification allows nurses to continue conducting triage at emergency services and will continue performing this activity in the future. / La clasificación de riesgo se desplegó en los servicios de emergencia con el fin de priorizar la atención, teniendo en cuenta la gravedad de la situación clínica y la necesidad de atención inmediata por parte de los usuarios. Sin embargo, existen dificultades en relación con el desarrollo de esta actividad por las enfermeras. El objetivo del estudio es evaluar la clasificación de riesgo los servicios de emergencia desde la perspectiva de las enfermeras. Para lograr este propósito se realizó un estudio exploratorio, la medición cuantitativa de la opinión por la técnica Delphi. Se realizaron tres rondas de aplicación de cuestionarios interactivos, que circularon entre los participantes hasta obtenerse consenso. Para conformar el panel de especialistas se utilizó la técnica de la bola de nieve. Datos recolectados mediante cuestionario ingresado en plataforma informática SurveyMonkey®, disponible online, sometidos a tratamiento estadístico. Fue estipulado como consenso un porcentaje igual o superior al 70% de respuestas. Los resultados obtenidos indicaron que la Clasificación de Riesgo es un dispositivo orientador de flujo de usuarios y de priorización de gravedad clínica, contribuyendo a disminuir el tiempo de espera de pacientes en condiciones clínicas graves y permitiendo la reducción de agravamientos y secuelas en pacientes de urgencia. Además, los participantes concordaron en que la clasificación de riesgo organiza el trabajo de los enfermeros y del servicio de urgencias. La evaluación del estado clínico mediante el desarrollo de escucha calificada de quejas de pacientes fue señalada como una de las acciones de enfermería en la clasificación de riesgo, considerándose la autonomía en el ejercicio de la actividad como una de las potencialidades. Respecto a la formación necesaria para realización de clasificación de riesgo, se indicó el conocimiento clínico como base para toma de decisiones en priorización de atención del paciente. La experiencia profesional en clasificación de riesgo fue también mencionada para determinar la prioridad de atención del paciente, la capacidad intuitiva resultó señalada como facilitadora. Para ello, los enfermeros necesitan poseer habilidades comunicacionales y de enfrentamiento a los conflictos de los pacientes. Entre las fragilidades, hubo consenso de discordancia sobre que el ámbito de clasificación de riesgo sea capaz de promover la recepción del paciente y favorecer su privacidad. Se consideró que el dimensionamiento numerario de enfermeros por turno laboral es insuficiente para la realización de clasificación de riesgo en los servicios de urgencias, dado que la demanda excesiva de pacientes y la escasez de exponen a los enfermeros de clasificación de riesgo a una carga laboral elevada. También hubo consenso de discordancia respecto a la disponibilización de capacitación periódica para los enfermeros sobre la utilización de protocolos/escalas de clasificación de riesgo. Acerca de la fragilidad de acciones de los enfermeros en la clasificación de riesgo, se indicó la falta de reevaluación de la condición clínica del paciente durante el tiempo de espera previo a la atención, lo cual puede agravar la condición clínica del mismo y perjudicar el ejercicio profesional del enfermero. Se concluye en que los enfermeros representan soporte profesional, cognitivo y emocional en la Clasificación de Riesgo. Los resultados señalan que la calificación permite que los enfermeros continúen actuando en la evaluación y clasificación del riesgo en los servicios de urgencias, y continuarán realizando dicha actividad en el futuro.