Gender is a context by which males and females are socialized. Social stereotypes based on gender influence emotional expressions. This study examined the emotional expression and adjustment of male and female adolescents who have experienced military deployment. Group interviews were held and transcripts were analyzed for gender differences in frequency and adherence to social display rules. The relationship of emotional expression and adjustment was also analyzed. Findings support the existence of gender differences in frequency of emotional expression, specifically that males had lower frequency of emotional expression in the interview. However, this study did not support adherence to social display rules. Males and females in the study expressed emotions that were both typical and atypical of display rules. Gender differences in adjustment were not found in this study. Clinical implications, limitations to research, and future research suggestions are also given. / Master of Science

Ego-resiliency (ER) is a trait that describes the ability to cope with stress, while effortful control (EC) is an individual difference related to the ability to optimally inhibit negative emotion through attentional mechanisms. ER has been linked to flexible cardiovascular responding without accounting for autonomic nervous system origins of physiological responses. Similarly, EC tends to be associated with increased cardiac vagal control. However, differences in the autonomic characteristics of these constructs remain unclear. In the current study, it was hypothesized that compared to low-scorers, individuals who score high on ER and EC will each have greater vagal control and less sympathetic control over interbeat intervals (IBI) changes during laboratory stressors. Subjects engaged in a mental arithmetic, speech preparation, and verbal fluency task to elicit cardiovascular activation along a continuum of threat. Electrocardiography and impedance cardiography were collected before, during, and after these tasks to assess changes in autonomic functioning. Results from multiple regression analyses indicated that high levels of EC predicted increased vagal control over IBI recovery and less sympathetic reactivity of IBI reactivity. Contrary to predictions, ER showed an opposite pattern of autonomic regulation across stressors. / Master of Science

Little is known about the complex processes leading to prosocial behavior. However, theories suggests that empathy, empathic responding, and emotion regulation abilities, may all contribute to the presence or absence of prosocial behavior. While theoretical papers demonstrate relationships between these constructs, researchers to date have only focused on small aspects of this complex relationship (e.g., the relationship between sympathy and emotion regulation, the relationship between empathy and prosocial behavior). This study proposed a complex model whereby empathy was both directly related to prosocial behavior and indirectly related to prosocial behavior via sympathy or personal distress. Furthermore, this study proposed an emotion regulation framework for understanding the relation between empathy and prosocial behavior, suggesting that one's emotion regulation abilities would cause a differential presentation of empathic responses, leading to a potential increase or decrease in prosocial behavior. An adult sample was recruited. Analyses were completed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Results indicate that hypothesized model adequately fit the data. All hypothesized associations between variables were significant. However, contrary to the hypothesis, emotion regulation ability did not alter the associations between study constructs. Strengths, limitations, and implications will be discussed. / Master of Science

Background and Aims: Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are characterized by deficits in social interactions and communication, and the presence of stereotypic behaviors and restricted interests. Children with ASD also demonstrate difficulties in emotional competence, including poor emotion regulatory capacity. The goal of this study was to investigate the link of social skills to emotion regulation and emotionality in 3 through 7 year-old children with and without ASD. Methods: Both parental report and behavioral laboratory observations were used to examine emotion regulation and emotionality in 21 typically developing (TD) children and 12 high functioning children with ASD. Results: This study had three major findings. First, an association between enhanced reported emotion regulation and increased social skills was found in children with ASD, but not in TD children. Second, children with ASD demonstrated lower reported emotion regulation, higher reported general negative emotionality, and lower reported general positive emotionality compared to their TD peers. Third, reported emotion regulation was linked to reported specific emotionality in children with ASD and to reported general emotionality in the TD group, though not in the predicted direction. Few significant findings occurred for observed emotion regulation or observed emotionality. Conclusions: Although current results should be interpreted with caution due to small sample size, a link between social skills and parent-reported emotion regulation was found in children with ASD. Children with ASD were also viewed by their parents as having poor emotion regulation and increased negative emotionality compared to their TD peers. Limitations and future research are discussed. / Ph. D.

Exercise is important to employees’ health and well-being. Exercise has been found to increase resources, foster resource replenishment, and increase happiness, which may make it effective in supporting employees against the harmful effects of depletion that arise from emotion regulation. Surface acting is a demanding behavior in which employees must fake their emotions to follow organizational display rules, but we know little about how exercise breaks can prevent harmful effects extending from this common job demand in some organizational settings (e.g., customer service). Fifty participants (N = 50) completed a surface acting task in which they listened to audio-recorded negative restaurant reviews and were instructed to respond to the reviews without conveying negative emotions across a 90-minute in-lab experimental session. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four break conditions (no break, a passive break, an exercise break, or a flaw essay break) which occurred halfway through the experimental session. Participants then completed the surface acting task again for 20 minutes. The surface acting task was effective in inducing emotion regulation. Participants who received a break experienced a decrease in depletion after the break, while participants who did not receive a break experienced an increase in depletion. However, no evidence was obtained to suggest that exercise breaks led to a reduction in depletion relative to other experimental conditions, nor a difference in mastery or positive affect. This thesis contributes to research on emotion regulation and exercise break by creating a new surface acting task that can easily be given in experiments. Also, this thesis suggests that organizations should ensure that employees are receiving breaks during worktime to guarantee employees maintain high productivity. / M.S. / Work is stressful as individuals may need to enhance, change, fake or suppress emotions through a process known as emotion regulation. One type of emotion regulation is surface acting in which individuals fake emotions to better align with organizational display rules. Surface acting has been found to contribute to emotional exhaustion, work-to-family conflict, feelings of inauthenticity and insomnia. Surface acting is common in customer jobs in which employees need to address customer concerns. Research has demonstrated that breaks can be used to help restore resources and reduce depletion. Specifically, exercise has been found to be beneficial in helping employees combat the harmful effects of emotion regulation and the depletion that comes with it. In this study, fifty participants completed a surface acting task in which they listened to audio-recorded negative restaurant reviews and were instructed to respond to the reviews without conveying negative emotions across a 90-minute in-lab experimental session. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four break conditions (no break, a passive break, an exercise break, or a flaw essay break) which occurred halfway through the experimental session. Participants then completed the surface acting task again for 20 minutes. The surface acting task was found to induce emotion regulation. Participants who received a break experienced a decrease in depletion after the break, while participants who did not receive a break experienced an increase in depletion. There was no evidence to suggest that exercise breaks were better at reducing depletion than the other conditions. This thesis suggests that organizations should ensure that employees are receiving breaks during worktime to guarantee employees maintain high productivity.

Previous research has shown peer victimization during adolescence to have strong lasting effects on mental health. Religiousness and forgiveness are two factors that are positively related to mental health and the current study proposes that they may have a protective influence against the negative effects of peer victimization. Additionally, religiousness and forgiveness may be related in that forgiveness may be a link in the religiousness/health relationship. The purpose of the current study was to examine the relationships among religiousness, forgiveness and mental health in the context of peer victimization during adolescence. Mental health was measured by internalizing symptomatology and emotion regulation. Analyses were conducted using Structural Equation Modeling. Results indicate that forgiveness may indeed be a link in the religiousness/health relationship but only when examining private religious practices. Results further show that religiousness may not be a strong protective factor in the context of peer victimization and that certain dimensions of forgiveness (specifically benevolence motivations) may actually exacerbate the effects of peer victimization on internalizing symptomatology rather than act as a protective factor. / Master of Science

Mental wellness is a critical component of healthy development and serves as a way to protect against stress and promote resilience against psychopathology. Emerging adulthood is an important time to foster mental wellness as individuals adjust to changing social roles, such as transitioning to college. Emotion regulation is a key mechanism for effective prevention because of its role in socio-emotional competence and its transdiagnostic significance for psychopathology. In this dissertation study, a brief, time and cost-effective emotion regulation training program for emerging adults (BERT) was developed and tested. Phase 1 focused on program development. Phase 2 utilized the brainwriting premortem method to refine program content. Undergraduate students (n = 12) attended four focus groups presenting initial program content. Four clinicians were also interviewed to determine program barriers. Qualitative analyses aggregated participant feedback to identify compliments, changes, and concerns about BERT in preparation for the pilot, and critical feedback was immediately implemented. In Phase 3, the 5-week program was pilot-tested in a college sample (N = 42) to evaluate Implementation (low attrition, high content engagement, favorable attitudes, low incidence of technical errors, costs), Reach (enrollment and completion demographics comparable to the population in which recruitment took place), and Efficacy (positive change in emotion regulation pre- to post-program). Twenty-seven participants completed at least 80% of program content. Chi-square analyses did not show any significant difference between participants who started the study and those who dropped out. Repeated measures ANOVAs exhibited significant improvements in emotion regulation, psychological distress, anxiety, stress, negative affectivity, and quality of life, suggesting promising initial efficacy. Development of BERT has high potential significance for promoting healthy development because the electronic delivery and brief nature of the program will reduce barriers to adoption and Implementation and the program development process that incorporates stakeholder feedback at multiple levels is expected to improve program Reach and Efficacy. The program development process, which incorporates stakeholder feedback at multiple levels, informs better implementation and dissemination. / Doctor of Philosophy / Mental wellness is important for healthy development and serves as a way to protect against stress and promote resilience against psychological distress. After the teenage years, emerging adulthood is an important time to foster mental wellness as individuals adjust to changing social roles, such as transitioning to college. Emotion regulation, or how one manages or responds to emotions, is important for protecting against negative psychological outcomes while fostering well-being. In this dissertation study, a brief, time and cost-effective emotion regulation training program for emerging adults (BERT) was developed and tested in three phases. Phase 1 focused on program development. Phase 2 utilized focus groups to get program feedback. Participant feedback identified compliments, changes, and concerns about BERT in preparation for the pilot, and critical feedback was immediately implemented. In Phase 3, the 5-week program was pilot-tested in a college sample. Twenty-seven participants completed at least 80% of program content. Significant improvements were found in in emotion regulation, psychological distress, anxiety, stress, negative emotions, and quality of life, suggesting promising initial efficacy. The program development process, which incorporates stakeholder feedback at multiple levels, informs better implementation and dissemination. Development of BERT has high potential significance for promoting healthy development because the electronic delivery and brief nature of the program will reduce barriers to adoption, implementation, and maintenance.

Children with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) can have heterogeneous presentations due to varying combinations of the eight criterion A symptoms. Researchers have identified a subtype of ODD for children with primarily angry/irritable mood symptoms and who are at risk for developing mood and anxiety disorders. Despite the prevalence of anger and mood issues in children with ODD, established treatments for disruptive behavior disorders typically focus primarily on teaching caregivers more effective parenting strategies to address oppositional and defiant behaviors, rather than directly targeting children's difficulties with emotions. To address the dearth of emotion-focused treatments for ODD, a novel emotion regulation intervention was developed based on a framework offered by Southam-Gerow (2013). The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the initial feasibility of this intervention and to explore its efficacy for reducing ODD and associated emotion regulation problems in middle childhood. Following a non-concurrent multiple baseline design, children ages 8-12 were assessed with semi-structured diagnostic interviews to determine study eligibility, and subsequently enrolled in a 13-week intervention with their caregivers. Treatment feasibility was supported by participant satisfaction ratings as well as treatment fidelity results. Treatment protocol adherence in terms of delivery by the therapist was high, but caregiver symptom reporting was less consistent. Nevertheless, multiple metrics support the efficacy of the intervention in reducing symptoms of ODD as well as some efficacy in improving child emotion regulation abilities. Overall, results support further research into emotion regulation-focused intervention for ODD. / PHD / Children with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) can appear quite different due to varying combinations of the eight primary ODD symptoms. Researchers have identified a subtype of ODD for children with predominately angry/irritable mood symptoms and who are at risk for developing mood and anxiety disorders. Despite the prevalence of anger and mood issues in children with ODD, established treatments for disruptive behavior disorders typically focus primarily on teaching caregivers more effective parenting strategies to address oppositional and defiant behaviors, rather than directly targeting children’s difficulties with emotions. To address the dearth of emotion-focused treatments for ODD, a novel emotion regulation intervention was developed based on a framework offered by Southam-Gerow (2013). The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the initial feasibility of this intervention and to explore its efficacy for reducing ODD and associated emotion regulation problems in middle childhood. Children ages 8-12 were assessed to determine study eligibility, and subsequently enrolled in a baseline phase of 2, 3, or 4 weeks followed by a 13-week intervention with their caregivers. Treatment feasibility and acceptability was supported by the results. Treatment protocol adherence in terms of delivery by the therapist was high, but caregiver symptom reporting was less consistent. Nevertheless, multiple metrics support the efficacy of the intervention in reducing symptoms of ODD as well as some evidence for improvement in child emotion regulation abilities. Overall, results support further research into emotion regulation-focused intervention for ODD.

Despite the rising prevalence of autism spectrum disorders (ASD), interventions for the adult population, most of whom do not achieve independent living, are limited (Seltzer, Shattuck, Abbeduto, and Greenberg, 2004). Additionally, many individuals with ASD experience impaired emotion regulation (ER), which is thought to contribute to higher rates of psychiatric comorbidities among adults with ASD as well as indirect effects upon adaptive functioning, interpersonal relationships, and vocational status ( Mazefsky et al., 2013; Samson, Huber, and Gross, 2012). The primary purpose of the current study was to investigate the initial feasibility and efficacy of an adapted mindfulness-based individual therapy for adults with ASD to target ER difficulties, and evaluate ER as a potential change process. Initial feasibility of mindfulness-based approaches among adults with ASD was supported by acceptable treatment fidelity and participant satisfaction ratings. Efficacy of the intervention was partially supported; four of the participants demonstrated significant improvements in impulse control, access to ER strategies, and emotional acceptance, and two of the participants evidenced significant decreases in emotional symptom distress. Analysis of ER as a potential change process found significant improvement for four participants, but slopes demonstrated that improvement initiated before treatment, a confound for determination of change processes. Further research is recommended, including additional timepoints, a clinical cutoff-derived sample, and further understanding of the role of self-regulatory deficits for individuals with ASD. / Ph. D. / Despite the rising numbers of people with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), interventions for adults with ASD, most of whom do not achieve independent living, are limited (Seltzer, Shattuck, Abbeduto, & Greenberg, 2004). Many adults with ASD have impaired emotion regulation (ER), which is thought to contribute to higher rates of co-occurring diagnoses such as depression and anxiety disorders, and reduces overall quality of life (Mazefsky et al., 2013; Samson, Huber, & Gross, 2012). The primary purpose of the current study was to investigate the practicality and usefulness of an adapted mindfulness-based individual therapy for adults with ASD to target these difficulties in ER, and to judge whether ER is a potential change process in the improvement of overall functioning. Nine individuals with ASD who were between the ages of 18-25 participated in the study. After their diagnosis of ASD was confirmed, they were assigned to either 3- or 4-week baseline period in order to assess their functioning before the treatment, and then began the 6 weekly therapy sessions on mindfulness. Initial practicality to conduct mindfulness-based approaches among adults with ASD was supported by acceptable treatment fidelity (adherence) and participant satisfaction ratings. Helpfulness of the intervention was partially supported; four of the participants saw significant improvements in control of emotional impulses, learned to use more ER strategies, and accepted their emotions more often, and two of the participants showed significant decreases in emotional distress. Study of ER as a potential change process found that four participants had significant improvements in their overall ER skills, but graphs showed that improvement began before the treatment, leading to questions about whether the intervention was the only reason for improvement. Further research is recommended.

abstract: Emotion regulation repertoire, or the number of emotion regulation strategies one is able to employ when needed, is an important element of emotion regulation flexibility. Emotion regulation flexibility, the ability to regulate in accordance with changing situational contexts and demands, is predictive of emotion regulation success. Currently, little is known about emotion regulation repertoire and its association with emotional health and well-being. In particular, more can be learned about how the different strategies in one’s repertoire interact, and which strategies show stronger relationships with mental health. The current study aimed to assess the relationship of different emotion regulation strategies to mental health, including their individual and combined influence. In addition, the interaction between the use of specific emotion regulation strategies and emotion regulation flexibility with respect to mental health was examined. I hypothesized (1a) reappraisal and (1b) acceptance, two strategies previously associated with positive psychological outcomes, would be significant predictors of mental health, and (2) better flexibility would predict better mental health. In addition, I hypothesized that (3) strategies often found to be maladaptive (suppression, distraction, rumination, and experiential avoidance) would have an inverse relationship with mental health. Finally, (4) maladaptive strategies would be associated with worse mental health for those lower in flexibility. These hypotheses were tested through a questionnaire as part of a larger in-lab study. Results revealed that reappraisal and rumination were the strongest predictors of mental health. Emotion regulation flexibility did not predict mental health or moderate the relationship between individual emotion regulation strategies and mental health. Results from this study suggest some emotion regulation strategies are stronger predictors of mental health than others. This will guide future research on specific emotion regulation strategies in a repertoire as well as their combined effect on mental health. Creating a clearer picture of how different strategies interact and influence mental health will also be vital for clinical interventions. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Psychology 2018