No / The processes whereby nurses develop the skills and knowledge required to deliver individualized and holistic care were examined in a 2-year study of nurses in a range of clinical settings and a university department of nursing in England. Members of two research teams of qualified nurses joined various communities of nursing practice as participating members and simultaneously "shadowed" designated nurses. At day's end, shadowers and shadowees reviewed the day's practice in critical incident interviews. The powerful processes of nurse socialization that create a strong core identity of the "good nurse" proved central to understanding the acquisition, use, and protection of nursing skills. Learning to become a nurse was always situated within particular communities of practice. Learning in such contexts, both in clinical and educational settings, entailed not just mastering a range of intellectual concepts but also learning through embodied performances involving engagement and interaction with the community of practice. The following were among the study recommendations: (1) link educational and clinical settings by helping clinical staff understand their collective role in the educational experience; (2) enhance the mentor and assessor functions; and (3) enable, support, and resource time in education for clinicians and time in practice for educators.

Selecting employees for hire and promotion is one of the most essential functions of an organization. Many companies that have positions which contain a physical component rely on physical ability testing as part of their selection procedure. The establishment of both the Civil Rights Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) had a profound impact on the manner in which selection testing may legally be conducted (Gutman, Koppes, & Vodanovich, 2011). The current study sought to analyze court cases involving physical ability testing. Results revealed that pure ability tests did not significantly differ from work sample tests with regard to whether court cases found for the plaintiff or defendant. Additionally, rulings did not significantly differ in ruling in favor of the plaintiff or defendant with regard to whether the position in question involved public safety. Finally, the ADA related cases did not significantly differ in their rulings in favor of the plaintiff or defendant after the 2011 modifications to the interpretation of disabled, as compared to before 2011. Future research should focus on the difference between court rulings involving physical ability tests in comparison to other forms of testing such as cognitive tests, and further investigate the role of the ADA in physical ability testing.

Denna avhandling, som i huvudsak är resultatet av ett projekt finansierat av Skolöverstyrelsen, består av fem delstudier (I-V) utförda under åren 1977-1991 samt en sammanfattande analysdel (VI). Avhandlingens syfte är att studera det unika svenska relativa betygssystemet, som infördes på försök i folkskolan i början av 1940-talet för att senare permanentas och även införas i enhets- och grundskolan samt slutligen även i gymnasiet. Det relativa betygssystemet beskrivs enligt följande indelning: framväxt och avveckling (V), funktioner (I), effekter och sidoeffekter (III) samt användning och behov (II och IV). I de empiriska studierna har elever, lärare, arbetsgivare och arbetstagare fått ge sina synpunkter på de relativa betygen. I delstudie V analyseras utvecklingen av det relativa betygssystemet med hjälp av offentliga utredningar, remissvar från elev-, lärar-, aibetsgivar- och arbetstagarorganisationer samt också via riksdagstryck.De relativa betygen beskrivs som starkt knutna till urvalet till högre studier och som ett försök att tillskapa ett urvalsinstrument med möjlighet till jämförbarhet och större rättvisa. Betygen har visat sig spela liten roll vid urvalet till olika arbeten. Betygen fyller en "körkortsfunktion" genom att ange inriktning och linje. I övrigt speglar betygen i huvudsak förmåga att tillgodogöra sig teoretiskt stoff. Vid urvalet till olika arbeten beskrivs en utveckling från formella till informella meriter i form av vissa personlighetsegenskaper, t ex samarbetsförmåga, flexibilitet och utåtriktad läggning. Arbetslivserfarenhet, referenser och personlighetsegenskaper betyder mer vid anställningar än skolbetygen.I avhandlingen anges såväl mättekniska, informationstekniska som socialpsykologiska förklaringar till att det relativa betygssystemet är på väg att avvecklas. Betänkligheter riktas mot ett eventuellt införande av målrelaterade betyg p g a styrningsriskerna för elever och lärare, samt också mot riskerna för en ökad kontroll och ett ökat beroende av avnämarna. I avhandlingen noteras skillnader mellan praktiska och teoretiska linjer när det gäller synen på betyg. Som tänkbara förklaringar anges användningen och behovet av betyg liksom också närheten och kopplingen till näringslivet. Betygens officiella funktioner som informations-, motivations- och urvalsinstrument har gradvis minskat. Tidigare har frågor om styrning och kontroll kommit i bakgrunden i förhållande till de officiella funktionerna. Om målrelaterade betyg införs och om betygens roll som urvalsinstrument försvinner, torde betygens styrnings- och kontrollfunktioner behöva diskuteras och motiveringar till att över huvud taget ha kvar betyg i skolan lyftas fram. / This dissertation, which is mainly the result of a project financed by the National Board of Education, consists of five substudies (I-V) carried out between 1977 and 1991, and a summary analysis (VI). The aim of the dissertation is to study group-referenced marks which are unique for Sweden. In the 1940s they were introduced on trial into elementary school, where they were later permanent, and they were also introduced into comprehensive school, nine-year compulsory school and finally also into upper secondary school. The description of group-referenced marks is divided into the following substudies: development and phase-out (V), functions (I), effects and side-effects (III), and use and requirements (II and IV). In the empirical studies, students, teachers, employers and employees have been asked to give their opinions of group-referenced marks. Substudy V analyses the development of group-referenced marks through official reports, through reactions to these reports from student, teacher, employers' and employees' organizations, and also through official parliamentary publications.Group-referenced marks are described as closely connected with the selection to higher education and as an attempt to construct an instrument of selection offering possibilities of comparability and greater justice. Marks have proved to be of little consequence for employment. They function as a "driving licence" by indicating direction and course programme. Marks reflect, above all, the ability to assimilate theoretical subject-matter. The selection to various employments manifests a development from formal to informal merits in the form of certain qualities, e. g. the ability to co-operate, flexibility and extrovert behaviour. Work experience, references and personal qualities are more important than marks for employmentThe dissertation indicates measurement technological, information technological and socio-psychological explanations of withdrawing group-referenced marks. The dissertation also expresses apprehensions about the potential introduction of criterion-referenced marks owing to the steering effects for pupils and teachers, as well as about the risks of increasing control and dependence on potential employers. Differences between practical and theoretical course programmes regarding attitudes to marks can also be observed. These differences can perhaps be explained by the use and needs of marks as well as by the nearness and connection to industry and commerce. The importance of the official functions of marks as information, motivation and selection instruments has gradually been reduced. Problems of steering and control used to be subordinate to the official functions. If criterion-referenced marks are introduced and if marks lose their selection function, the steering and control functions of marks should be discussed and the motives for preserving marks in school should be presented. / digitalisering@umu