Genetic interactions that underlie developmental processes such as cell differentiation and pattern formation are complex and difficult to elucidate. Neural Crest (NC) cells and their derivatives offer an optimal system in which to probe for these complex interactions as they acquire different cell fates and constitute a variety of structures. The transcription factors Sox10 and Pax3 as well as the transmembrane receptor Endothelin receptor b (Ednrb) are temporally and spatially co-expressed early in NC cells and mutations in these genes lead to similar hypopigmentation phenotypes due to a reduced number of NC-derived melanocyte precursors, the melanoblasts. The goal of this study was to establish whether Sox10 and Ednrb or Pax3 and Ednrb interact to promote normal murine melanocyte development. Crosses of Sox10 or Pax3 with Ednrb heterozygous mutants showed that the double heterozygous hypopigmentation phenotype was significantly more pronounced than phenotypes of single heterozygotes, implying that a synergistic interaction exists between Sox10 and Ednrb and Pax3 and Ednrb. This interaction was further explored by the attempt to rescue the Sox10 and Pax3 hypopigmentation phenotypes by the transgenic addition of Ednrb to melanoblasts. Pigmentation was completely restored in the Sox10 and partially restored in the Pax3 mutant mice. The comparison of the number of melanoblasts in transgenic and non-transgenic Sox10 mutant embryos showed that the transgenic rescue occurred as early as E11.5, a critical time for melanoblast population expansion. Cell survival assays indicated that the rescue was not due to an effect of the transgene on melanoblast survival. A novel phenotype arose when studying the interaction between Ednrb and Pax3. Newborns appeared normal but by 3.5 weeks of age, the affected pups were smaller than normal littermates and developed a dome-shaped head; some also developed thoracic kyphosis. Affected pups were dead by 4 weeks of age: 80% were Pax3Sp/+ and 75% were female. When compared to normal littermates, affected mice had brains with enlarged 4th ventricles and more glia while skeletal staining showed kyphosis, wider rib cages and pelvic differences. An epistatic interaction resulting from the mixing of genetic backgrounds that is exacerbated in the presence of Pax3 heterozygosity is suspected.

Endothelin receptor b (Ednrb) and its ligand Endothelin 3 (Edn3) have been implicated in melanoma. Several studies have shown an upregulation of EDNRB and EDN3 at both the protein and mRNA levels, as melanoma becomes more aggressive. This study investigated the putative role played by Edn3 over-expression in melanoma progression and angiogenesis in vivo. We crossed Tg(Grm1)Epv transgenic mice that aberrantly express metabotropic glutamate receptor1 under the Dopachrome tautomerase promoter, leading to spontaneous melanocytic lesions in the ears and tails that do not metastasize, with transgenics that overexpress Edn3 under the Keratin 5 promoter (K5-Edn3) or overexpress Ednrb in melanocytes (Tg(Ednrb)1Lk). In both the Tg(Grm1)Epv/K5-Edn3 and Tg(Grm1)Epv/Tg(Ednrb)1Lk mice, tumors appeared earlier and grew significantly larger and faster when compared to Tg(Grm1)Epv mice. Approximately eighty-one percent of Tg(Grm1)Epv/ K5-Edn3 mice and 76% of Tg(Grm1)Epv/Tg(Ednrb)1Lk mice had pigmented lesions in distant organs such as the lung and brain. Real-Time PCR analysis showed higher expression levels of genes involved in cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions and angiogenesis in lesions of Tg(Grm1)Epv/K5-Edn3 when compared to controls. Considering the rapid tumor growth rate of in the Tg(Grm1)Epv/K5-Edn3 mice, differences in the angiogenic response compared to control mice were investigated. Immunofluorescence analysis with the endothelial cell marker CD31 showed that there were more endothelial cells per tumor area in the Tg(Grm1)Epv/K5-Edn3 mice than the controls. Proteome analysis showed that the Dct-Grm1/K5-Edn3 mice had significant increases in other angiogenic related genes such as Angiogenin, CXCL 16 and Endoglin, when compared to controls, while real time PCR analysis of tail tumors also showed higher expression levels of angiogenic related genes such as Hif-1α. The results of this study showed that the EDNRB/EDN3 axis is sufficient to alter the kinetics of melanocytic tumors’ progression, lead them to a fully malignant state, and increase the tumor angiogenic response.

Pigmentation plays a protective role against damage caused by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. Humans with fair skin and light hair have a higher susceptibility to UV-induced DNA damage that can lead to the development of skin cancers. The melanocytes found in the skin and hair follicles depend on different signaling molecules for their proper development and pigment production. α-Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (α-msh) binds to the Melanocortin 1 receptor (Mc1r) to regulate pigment production and the switch between eumelanin and pheomelanin. Lethal yellow mice (Ay) overexpress the agouti signaling protein, which inhibits the binding of α-msh, resulting in a yellow coat color phenotype. Endothelin 3 (Edn3) encodes for a ligand involved in melanocyte development by regulating the differentiation, proliferation and migration of melanocyte precursors. A tetracycline inducible transgenic mouse in which Edn3 was placed under the keratin 5 promoter (K5-tTA;TRE-Edn3-lacZ) displays a hyperpigmentation phenotype due to the accumulation of melanocytes in the skin and an increase in hair pigment. Comparative analysis of dorsal hairs from Ay and Ay; K5-tTA;TRE-Edn3-lacZ mice using high performance liquid chromatography showed that transgenic Edn3 expression significantly increased both eumelanin and pheomelanin. No significant difference in the number of follicular melanocytes between Edn3 transgenic and non-transgenic mice was evidenced by immunofluorescence using an antibody against Tyrosinase related protein 1. Gene expression analysis of hair follicles showed that Edn3 upregulates the expression of melanogenic genes. Deactivation of transgenic Edn3 is possible with doxycycline (dox) treatment. To test if transgenic Edn3 expression is required to rescue and maintain a dark pigmentation phenotype in Ay mice, dox was administered during embryonic and postnatal development to manipulate transgenic Edn3 expression. Results showed that transgenic Edn3 expression is required to maintain a dark pigmentation phenotype after birth but is independent of a developmental requirement. Transgenic Edn3 expression in Mc1re/e mice also resulted in a darkened coat color. Our results indicate that the paracrine expression of Edn3 from keratinocytes is capable of generating and maintaining a dark coat color by the regulation of melanogenic genes independent of Mc1r signaling. The results of this study may open new approaches to the treatment of hypopigmentation disorders.

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Les récepteurs de type B de l'endothéline (ETB) sont présents sur l'enveloppe nucléaire des cardiomyocytes ventriculaires adultes (MVCAs). Il a été démontré que dans les MVCAs et les cellules endothéliales de rat, l’endocytose de l’endothéline marqué à la rhodamine colocalise avec le Lysotracker, un marqueur des lysosomes, mais n'est pas observée sur l’enveloppe nucléaire. Dans cette étude, nous avons caractérisé la localisation subcellulaire et la régulation de la biosynthèse de l’endothéline 1 dans les MVCAs et les fibroblastes cardiaques adultes de rat. Dans les deux types cellulaires les expériences d’immunocytofluorescence ont révélé une immunoréactivité de l’endothéline 1 correspondant à tous les stades de maturation du peptide, et détectable sur ou à proximité de la membrane nucléaire. L'enzyme de conversion d'endothéline 1(ECE1) est une métalloprotéase qui convertit la ̏ big˝ endothéline 1 en un peptide de 21 acides aminés biologiquement actif. L’immunoréactivité de l’ECE1 a été associée avec les tubules-T et les membranes nucléaires ou périnucléaires dans les MVCAs. Par contre, nous avons observé une immunoréactivité de l’ECE1 à la fois dans le noyau et le cytoplasme, mais pas sur la membrane plasmatique, dans les fibroblastes cardiaques à passage 3. L'ARNm de l’ET-1 a été détecté dans les deux types cellulaires. La régulation de la production de l'endothéline est principalement transcriptionnelle. L’application du facteur de croissance transformant ß1 (TGFß1) a augmenté l’ARNm de l’ET-1 dans les MVCAs et l'angiotensine II a stimulé l'augmentation de l’ARNm de l'ET-1 dans les fibroblastes. Dans les MVCAs, l'augmentation de l'ARNm ET-1 a été associée à une élévation du peptide intracellulaire ET-1 et du calcium nucléaire. Ces données suggèrent que l'endothéline endogène est disponible et serait capable d’activer le récepteur ETB nucléaire dans les MVCAs en réponse à des stimuli extracellulaires. / Type B endothelin receptors (ETB) are located in the nuclear envelope of adult ventricular cardiomyocytes (ACVMs). In both ACVMs and endothelial cells, endocytosed rhodamine endothelin colocalized with Lysotracker but was not observed at the nuclear membrane. In this study we have characterized the regulation and subcellular localization of endothelin biosynthesis in ACVMs and adult cardiac fibroblasts. In both cell types immunocytofluorescence experiments revealed endothelin-1 immunoreactivity, comprising all stages of peptide maturation, either on or near the nuclear membrane. Endothelin converting enzyme 1 (ECE1) is a metalloprotease that converts big endothelin to the biologically active 21-amino acid peptide. ECE1 immunoreactivity was associated with the T-tubules and nuclear or perinuclear membranes in ACVMs. In contrast, ECE1 immunoreactivity was observed both in the nucleus and the cytosol, but not at the plasma membrane, in passage 3 cardiac fibroblasts. Endothelin-1 mRNA was detected in both cell types. Regulation of endothelin production is primarily at the level of transcription. Application of TGFβ1 increased ET-1 mRNA in ACVMs whereas angiotensin II was effective in increasing ET-1 mRNA in fibroblasts. In AVCMs, the increase in ET-1 mRNA was associated with an increase of intracellular ET-1 peptide and nuclear calcium. These data suggest that endogenous endothelin is available and may activate nuclear ETB in ACVMs in response to extracellular stimuli.