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The global requirement for sustainable energy provision will become increasingly important over the next fifty years as the environmental effects of fossil fuel use become apparent. Therefore, the issues surrounding integration of renewable energy supplies need to be considered carefully. The focus of this work was the development of a decision support framework that will aid the design of sustainable energy systems for the supply of electricity, heat, hot water and fuel for transportation. Issues requiring consideration in high percentage renewable energy systems include the reliability of the supply when intermittent sources of electricity are being used, and the subsequent necessity for storage and back-up generation. In order to allow the modelling of realistic integrated systems that supply the total energy needs of an area, the production of fuels derived from biomass and waste and their use in a variety of different plant types (e. g. vehicles, engines, turbines, fuel cells, electrolysers, heating and hot water storage systems) is an important consideration. The temporal nature of both intermittent electricity and derived fuel supplies must be taken into account in any analysis. Existing demand and supply matching software has been enhanced to allow the full analysis described. Generic algorithms have been developed to allow the behaviour of a comprehensive list of plant types and methods for producing derived fuels to be modelled, which require only available process and manufacturers' data. The program is flexible, generic and easy to use, allowing a variety of supply strategies to be analysed. This has been shown through the study of a small Scottish island, which highlights the importance of derived fuel production and use. This work has succeeded in developing a more complete tool for analysing the feasibility of integrated renewable energy systems. This will allow informed decisions to be made about the technical feasibility of supply mix and control strategies, plant type and sizing, suitable fuel production, and fuel and energy storage sizing, for any given area and range of supply options.

The present work is a contribution towards the integration of building simulation tools in order to better represent the complexity of the real world. It attempts to overcome certain shortfalls of contemporary simulation applications with respect to indoor air flows. As a result, the evaluation of building energy consumption and indoor air quality is expected to be improved. Advanced fluid flow models (as employed within Building Thermal Simulation - BTS - and Computational Fluid Dynamics - CFD) with different degrees of detail were investigated and their modelling deficiencies identified. The CFD technique which defines the fluid flow on a micro scale was integrated into BTS in which fluid flow is described in a larger scale. The resulting combined approach strengthens the modelling potential of each methodology by overcoming their specific deficiencies. BTS's inability to predict air flow property gradients within a single space was surmounted and the difficult of estimating CFD boundary conditions are now supplied by BTS. The conflation approach is expected to be employed where gradients of indoor air flow properties can be considered crucial to the evaluation of thermal comfort and energy consumption. The BTS environment, ESP-r, was elected to perform the current work and a new CFD program, dfs, was specifically developed for the analysis of three-dimensional, turbulent, transient air flow. Finally, the two approaches were integrated. The integration work focuses on the CFD boundary conditions where the interactions of BTS and CFD take place; these occur at the inside zone surfaces and at the zone openings. Three conflation approaches were devised addressing different degrees of complexity and sophistication. The first one, involving the two types of zone boundaries, corresponds to a simple approach where the BTS and CFD systems exchange information without any direct interaction. The second approach consists of three other schemes to handle the thermal coupling at the internal zone surfaces. The third approach comprises coupling between the nodal network approach as employed by the BTS environment, and the continuity and momentum equations in the CFD technique. A validation methodology consisting of analytical validation, intermodel comparison and empirical validation is described and applied. The technique is shown to be adequate for modelling indoor air flows when compared to existing models. Three situations, covering the different types of air flows encountered within buildings are discussed to demonstrate the combined method's applicability when compared with the nodal network approach. Finally, general conclusions are presented and some possible future work is identified showing that the developed methodology is very promising.

Certain features of dynamic models of energy demand based on the economic theory of production are examined. Attention is mainly confined to first and third generation dynamic models. First generation models are partial adjustment models where energy Is treated largely in isolation from other inputs. Third generation models are based explicitly on dynamic economic optimization, incorporating the notion of costs of adjustment for quasi-fixed inputs. The analysis focusses on three main issues. The first is the characteristics of first generation models and how these models can be extended to the industrial sector. The second is the nature and empirical significance of alternative definitions of third generation models according to whether adjustment costs are treated as a function of net or gross investment. The third issue is whether first and third generation models are generically related and, if so, how. The work on first generation models is mainly confined to the Balestra-Nerlove framework. This specification generally has been applied to individual fuels in the residential/commercial sector but is also applied to aggregate residentidal energy demand and to industrial fuel demand. In terms of third generation models, recognition that adjustment costs may reflect not only net but also gross investment leads to a more complex model, with significant differences in the theoretical specification between net and gross investment formulations. These differences remain significant empirically. Application of the net and gross investment model specifications to Canadian data show that estimation of the simpler net investment version may well entail erroneous estimates of certain parameters. The energy functions of the first and third generation models are found to be generically related. The simplicity of a first generation model can under certain conditions be consistent with the richer, more complex framework of third generation models. However, empirical testing did not support the notion of treating a first generation energy function as tantamount to a reduced form specification of a third generation model.

Building sector takes a large part of Swedish domestic energy use. Swedish government had set goal that required energy consumption should decrease by 20% in year 2020 compared to 1995. Public house companies will play an important role in the process.  The work studies a typical Swedish Multi-family dwelling, built in 1960s and belonging to Älvkarlebyhus AB. These buildings were given enhanced air tightness in recent years which yielded a good result. This work focuses on improving the old ventilation system and decreasing energy consumption.  Building energy simulation tool IDA ICE was used to model the object building and to examine the effectiveness of the new system. The tested energy efficiency measures include upgraded ventilation system with heat exchanger, and the installation of demand control (DCV) to the ventilation. Both energy, environmental and economic aspects are considered in the study. The result showed the total energy demand decreased 35% with renovation. Total investment for all buildings correspond to 5 760 000 SEK. New system could save 237 872 SEK/year and payback time will be 24 years.

This paper examines factors associated with awareness of the EU energy labels of household appliances and the factors associated with the choice of appliance energy class using a dataset of 2136 households in Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, and Romania. The results for five major appliances indicate that household knowledge of energy use increases label awareness, while households with a large share of elderly decrease label awareness. Factors that influence awareness of energy labels have a limited impact on appliance energy class choice. Significant country differences also exist. Romania shows higher household propensities to be aware of the energy class of appliances than Czech Republic, while Bulgaria shows lower propensities of label awareness compared to the benchmark of Czech Republic.

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited / The purpose of this thesis is to provide an overview of Germany's energy supply options until 2020, the political implications and the respective consequences for Germany's foreign energy policy. The oil and gas supply situation for Germany will become more complex in the upcoming decade. Since oil imports from the UK and Syria are expected to cease after 2005, 18% of the current oil supply will have to be substituted within this decade. Russia may not be available to provide the amount necessary. The gas situation is somewhat less urgent, as a supply shift will have to take place only after 2010, when the Norwegian and Dutch gas reserves cease to satisfy the export demand. The only regions that will be able to provide oil and gas on a global level to meet the growing world demand will be the Middle East, Russia and other Caspian Sea neighbors. Germany's welfare is directly dependent on its economical success. As a highly industrialized country, Germany should take a tremendous interest not only in the future development of the international energy market, but also in attempting to influence the development immediately following that of its domestic needs. / Lieutenant Commander, German Navy

In the transition from traditional power plants to more environmentally friendly alternatives will generate a need for more flexibility in production, transmission and consumption. Energy storage can be provide the flexibility that are required to continue to have a robust and stable electrical system. The purpose of this report is to give an overview of the electrical energy storage technologies. The classification of energy storage technologies used in this report is mechanical, chemical and electrical. In these three categories were ten different technologies presented with function, advantages, disadvantages, degree of maturity and research area for each technology. The distribution between the globally operational energy storage technologies were presented. Also the framework and regulations for actors to own and operate an energy storage in Sweden. This review was complemented with a case study about connecting a lithium ion battery system to a wind farm. The case investigated the profitability for 20 MW wind farm with a 12 MW and 18 MWh energy storage system for a five and ten-year period. The utilization of the storage was optimized with \textit{What's best} for three different investment cost. The review were done in order to answer: what is the futures energy storage technology?, what applications can be replaced by energy storage for an electricity producer? and what will the effects be of the new actor Aggregator? The result from comparing three different prices for lithium ion batteries resulted in a non-profit scenario for all the cases in a five-year period. There were a maximum, minimum and predicted futuristic price, which generated a loss of 731, 220 and 76.6 MSEK for respective case. Only the futuristic price for a ten-year period indicated an profit. The conclusion that can be drawn from this case study is that energy storage is too expensive and the extra income from utilization of the energy storage is not enough to motivate an energy storage investment. There are not a single technology that possesses all of the required properties for the applications. In the future there will be a combination of technologies to cover all the applications. For the seasonal storage pumped hydro and compressed air are most promising technologies. The flywheels and supercapacitors can contribute with short powerful burst of energy that are needed for power quality and operating reserves. For the more wide range application such as power fleet optimization and integrate the renewable energy production, batteries in form of lithium ion battery and sodium-sulfur battery will most probably be used. For electricity producers energy storage can replace existing solutions. Instead of using diesel generators for black start services, an battery can be used. Also the power quality could be enhanced with batteries acting as filters. The process can be more utilized in a more efficient way with an energy storage. The aggregator actor gathers small variable load from e.g several houses and participate on the electricity market. This actor will level out the differences in power demand during the day. It will reduce the losses and reduce the need for grid investments in both the transmission and distribution networks. It would also generate more available frequency reserves and probably change how the market is paying for the generated benefits.

Since the end of the Second World war, United Kingdom energy policy has been highly influenced by beliefs about the adequacy of indigeneous resources, security of supply and macro-economic objectives. Over the same period we observe a growing sophistication in the official projections of energy requirements both in terms of content and technique. An analysis of the methods and models used in the calculation of recent official projections of UK energy demand identifies a number of problems. These mainly concern the size of the price elasticity of energy demand employed in the sectoral models and the modelling of interfuel substitution particularly in the Domestic Sector market for space and water heating. A review of econometric studies of UK demand indicates that the price elasticities of energy demand employed in the Department of Energy models of sectoral energy demand are generally lower than the estimates reported elsewhere. In contrast, official estimates of the own price and cross price elasticities for individual fuels in the Other Industry Sector are broadly consistent with other econometric studies. However the body of work carried out in this area is found to have a number of shortcomings: (i) in general, the problem of autocorrelation has been dealt with inadequately and inappropriately, (ii) it has not been possible to distinguish long run and short run effects satisfactorily, (iii) it has not been possible to distinguish the independent influences of income and price satisfactorily, (iv) models of interfuel substitution have generally performed poorly in the Domestic Sector and (v) the impact of biased disembodied technical change has not been considered in most studies of interfuel substitution. A new study of energy demand in the Industrial and Domestic Sectors of the UK economy attempts to address these problems. The results are mixed. Well established techniques are used to detect and adjust the results for first order autocorrelation. Biases of technical change are estimated and in particular the Domestic Sector interfuel substitution model performs well. However the problem of modelling the dynamic structure of energy demand remains unresolved. In the Industrial Sector, cross section and time series data is pooled in order to distinguish the independent influences of output and price. While the resulting price and output elasticities conform to the values that we would expect a priori, the explanatory power of the model is low. In the Domestic Sector it is possible to develop a model of energy demand with a good predictive performance, however simulation experiments with the model show that the high frequency variation of the dependent variable is mostly explained by the exogeneous temperature variable which itself is difficult to predict. In contrast it is found that relatively simple relationships between overall primary energy demand and key economic and demographic variables can have surprisingly good forecasting properties. This probably arises because of the inertia of systems at this level of aggregation. A severe test is constructed for a number of single equation forecasting models. The parameters of the models are estimated on UK time series data from 1954 to 1973 then the results are used to generate forecasts of the dependent variables over the highly unstable period between 1974 and 1980. Several of the models provide very accurate predictions. The main purpose of the thesis is to assess recent official forecasts of UK energy demand. The single equation model which performs best in the forecasting test is used as a basis for generating projections to the year 2000. The results are compared with the latest official projections. It is found that the official forecasts imply a lower price elasticity than used in the single equation model, a similar relationship between the structural composition of GDP and aggregate energy demand while the implicit income elasticity is higher than our estimate under high fossil fuel price assumptions but lower when fossil fuel prices are assumed to be lower. The simple model yields very similar forecasts to the official projections for 2000 with the exception of one case. With regard to projections of final energy consumption in the year 2000, there are some areas of contention between the bulk of econometric evidence and the implications of the official forecasts but they are small. Most aspects of the fuel mix forecasts are broadly supported by the econometric evidence given the relative fuel price assumptions. It is concluded that the latest official projections represent a fairly realistic appraisal of the likely outcome of an interplay of market forces in the energy market.

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