Neste trabalho estudou-se a existência de viés de gênero nas escolhas familiares em gastar recursos na educação dos filhos e filhas. Foi obtida uma amostra de 11386 famílias da Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares - POF 2002-2003 do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE). As famílias tinham filhos e filhas entre 7 e 20 anos de idade, com pelo menos um deles matriculado e sem que outro membro da família, pais ou outros parentes, também estivesse matriculado. Curvas de Engel para as despesas com educação e para gastos com grupos de itens de despesas educacionais foram estimadas. Entre as variáveis explicativas estão o número de filhos e número de filhas matriculados e o número de filhos e o número de filhas não matriculados segundo faixas etárias. Outras variáveis socioeconômicas e demográficas controlaram as demais características familiares. Como 2066 famílias não apresentaram despesas com educação, as curvas de Engel foram estimadas com a utilização de modelos Tobit. As curvas de Engel também foram estimadas por Mínimos Quadrados e os resultados comparados com os obtidos pelos modelos Tobit. A igualdade entre os parâmetros estimados do número de filhos e filhas matriculados em cada faixa etária foi verificada com testes de Wald, isto para os dois procedimentos de estimação utilizados. Os resultados econométricos foram consistentes com a hipótese do trade-off quantidade qualidade existente nas decisões familiares de alocar recursos para a prole, pois o número total de filhos e filhas pressionou as despesas com educação a taxas decrescentes. As análises das despesas com educação, realizadas com os dois procedimentos de estimação, indicaram diferenças significativas no impacto causado por filhos e filhas matriculados nas faixas etárias de 7 a 10 anos e de 15 a 20 anos, com viés pró-feminino. A análise dos gastos com mensalidades escolares com modelos Tobit indicou diferenças significativas para duas faixas etárias, de 11 a 14 anos e de 15 a 20 anos, com viés pró-feminino na última faixa. Com Mínimos Quadrados houve viés pró-feminino na faixa de 15 a 20 anos, nas demais faixas não houve diferenças significativas. Quando foram analisados os gastos com cursos não regulares com um modelo Tobit, foram observadas diferenças significativas de 7 a 10 anos e de 11 a 14 anos, as duas pró-femininas. Ao analisar os gastos com cursos não regulares por Mínimos Quadrados, detectou-se viés pró-masculino na faixa etária de 11 a 14 anos e viés pró-feminino nas demais faixas. Entre as demais estimativas não houve diferenças significativas ou elas foram pró-femininas, independente do procedimento de estimação. Os resultados indicam que a formação das jovens não sofreu discriminação no que tange à disposição das famílias de gastarem com a formação de sua prole, salvo as duas exceções mencionadas. Estes resultados mostraram-se consistentes com o cenário favorável à escolarização feminina no Brasil já apontado em outros estudos. / This study investigated the gender bias presence within the family choices about spending resourses with their children\'s education. A sample of 11386 families was obtained from Household Budget Survey - POF 2002-2003, of the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistic - IBGE. The families had children between 7 and 20 years old, with at least one of them enrolled, considering that no other member of the family, parents or relatives, was enrolled. Engel curves for the overall expenses and for expenditures with educational item groups were estimated. The number of sons and daughters enrolled and the number of sons and daughters not enrolled according to age level are among the explanatory variables. Other socioeconomics and demographic variables controlled the rest of the family characteristics. As 2066 families did not showed expenses with education, the Engel curves were estimated using Tobit models. The Engel curves were also estimated by the method of Least Squares and the results were compared to the ones obtained by Tobit model. The equity between the estimated parameters of the number of sons and daughters enrolled in each age level was verified with Wald test for both the estimation procedures used. The econometric results were consistent with the hypothesis of quantity-quality trade-off which exists within the family decisions when allocating resourses for their children because the total number of children pressed the educational expenditures at decreasing rates. The analysis of total expenses with education, accomplished by both the estimation procedures, indicated significant differences in the impact caused by sons and daughters enrolled at the age level from 7 to 10 and from 15 to 20 with pro-female bias. The analysis of the expenditures with school monthly fees with Tobit models indicated significant differences for both age levels, from 11 to 14 and from 15 to 20, with a pro-female bias in the latter level. With the Minimum Square method there was a pro-female bias in the level of age from 15 to 20 years old, in the other levels there were no significant differences. When the expenditures with non regular courses were analyzed with Tobit model, significant differences were observed from 7 to 10 and from 11 to 14 years old, both pro-female. When the expenditures with non regular courses were analyzed with the Minimum Square method a pro-male bias was detected in the age level from 11 to 14 and a pro-female bias in the other levels. Among the other estimations there were no significant differences or they were pro-female, despite the estimation procedure. The results show that the young girls\' education did not suffer any discrimination related to the family disposition of spending with their children\'s education, apart from the two exceptions mentioned. These results are consistent with the favorable scenario to the female education in Brazil already pointed out in other studies.

Thesis (M.A.)--Northern Michigan University, 2009. / "14-62709." Bibliography: leaves 54-59.

Energy is the driver of activity in every economy and, therefore, its importance cannot be overemphasised. However, Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) faces general problems of access to modern energy. Most households and industry in SSA use traditional and unclean energy resources for activities such as cooking, lighting and drying of farm produce. Many households in less developed countries have very limited choices with regard to alternatives to traditional energy supplies. Energy poverty is overt in many poor countries, particularly in the Sub-Saharan region where 700 million people are deprived of access to modern energy facilities. In Malawi, less than 6 percent of the population have access to electricity. There are, therefore, many questions regarding the state of energy poverty still to be answered, not only in Malawi, but also the entirety of the SSA region. Questions such as what is the level of energy poverty in these regions? What determines this level of poverty? Why are people not adopting renewable energy facilities for their household needs? Are some energy facilities inferior to others? Such questions were the centre of the present study. These questions are important because, with energy poverty, nearly all the Millennium Development Goals are unachievable and sustainable development could not be a success story where the dominant source of energy for both households and industry is biomass. This study was based on a survey conducted in South Lunzu Township (SLT), which is a low income area to the east of Ndirande Mountain in the city of Blantyre, Malawi. The survey administered a standard questionnaire through face-to-face interviews with heads of households. Data was collected from 319 respondents who were selected through random sampling techniques. The descriptive statistics suggest that the average household size for South Lunzu Township is 5 people. The average age of the sampled respondents was about 38. Energy Poverty and Sustainable Development The findings of the thesis suggest that over 90 percent of the households sampled were energy poor with energy expenditure exceeding 10 percent of total household expenditure. In terms of energy resources used in SLT, 2.9 percent used electricity for cooking meals. Only 2 households, representing 0.63 percent, use liquefied petroleum Gas (LPG) and just 1 household, representing 0.31 percent, depended mostly on solar power. On the other hand, energy facilities that are considered dirty, inefficient and a danger to the heath of people seem to be popular. For instance charcoal and firewood were used by 25 percent and 4.7 percent of the total sample respectively. Most households use a combination of energy facilities; however, those that are considered inferior are preferred. Of the sample, 42 percent use both charcoal and firewood to cook their meals. Further, the results of the Engel functions suggest that charcoal and wood were not regarded as inferior products for the cooking needs of households despite improvements in income. Electricity, which was also regarded as a normal energy resource, had positive income elasticity. To improve access to modern energy facilities at the household level, the thesis recommends that a flexible trade and tax regime, one that will improve the availability and affordability of renewable energy to the majority, should be adopted. The Logit model of energy poverty reveals that household expenditure on transport, income level, age, and education level of the head of household; household size; and home size, are important factors in explaining the level of energy poverty in South Lunzu Township. Further, the results revealed that expenditure on housing and marital status could not be relied upon as important predictors of the probability of energy poverty in South Lunzu. Expenditure on education was associated with lower levels of energy poverty. Households who spent more on schooling also spent more on food items and their expenditure on energy resources was less than 10 percent of the total expenditure per month. In addition, those households that spent more on food were also likely to be energy well-off. Energy Poverty and Sustainable Development Results of the multinomial logit (MNL) model suggest that most socioeconomic variables under study were inelastic in influencing the probability for the outcomes, at the household level, to be used for the purposes of cooking. Statistically, age, income and education level of the head of household, together with household size, were important factors that influenced the choice of most of the outcomes for cooking purposes, including electricity, charcoal, firewood and LP gas. The major recommendation of this study is that campaigns emphasising the abilities of renewable energy be developed and disseminated. That renewable energy is relegated to poor and uncivilised societies is a notion that must be rooted out of the mindset of the average, civilised urban dweller. Also, the use of LP gas for cooking purposes must be encouraged. Import tax regimes that discourage international trade of renewable energy resources must be removed to encourage lower prices on such facilities. These policies would ensure sustainable development by reducing reliance on biomass, which is depleting at a faster rate than it is regenerating. / Thesis (PhD (Economics))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2013

Texte remanié de: Diss.--Princeton--Theological seminary, 1993. / Bibliogr. p. [284]-316. Index.

Neste trabalho estudou-se a existência de viés de gênero nas escolhas familiares em gastar recursos na educação dos filhos e filhas. Foi obtida uma amostra de 11386 famílias da Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares - POF 2002-2003 do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE). As famílias tinham filhos e filhas entre 7 e 20 anos de idade, com pelo menos um deles matriculado e sem que outro membro da família, pais ou outros parentes, também estivesse matriculado. Curvas de Engel para as despesas com educação e para gastos com grupos de itens de despesas educacionais foram estimadas. Entre as variáveis explicativas estão o número de filhos e número de filhas matriculados e o número de filhos e o número de filhas não matriculados segundo faixas etárias. Outras variáveis socioeconômicas e demográficas controlaram as demais características familiares. Como 2066 famílias não apresentaram despesas com educação, as curvas de Engel foram estimadas com a utilização de modelos Tobit. As curvas de Engel também foram estimadas por Mínimos Quadrados e os resultados comparados com os obtidos pelos modelos Tobit. A igualdade entre os parâmetros estimados do número de filhos e filhas matriculados em cada faixa etária foi verificada com testes de Wald, isto para os dois procedimentos de estimação utilizados. Os resultados econométricos foram consistentes com a hipótese do trade-off quantidade qualidade existente nas decisões familiares de alocar recursos para a prole, pois o número total de filhos e filhas pressionou as despesas com educação a taxas decrescentes. As análises das despesas com educação, realizadas com os dois procedimentos de estimação, indicaram diferenças significativas no impacto causado por filhos e filhas matriculados nas faixas etárias de 7 a 10 anos e de 15 a 20 anos, com viés pró-feminino. A análise dos gastos com mensalidades escolares com modelos Tobit indicou diferenças significativas para duas faixas etárias, de 11 a 14 anos e de 15 a 20 anos, com viés pró-feminino na última faixa. Com Mínimos Quadrados houve viés pró-feminino na faixa de 15 a 20 anos, nas demais faixas não houve diferenças significativas. Quando foram analisados os gastos com cursos não regulares com um modelo Tobit, foram observadas diferenças significativas de 7 a 10 anos e de 11 a 14 anos, as duas pró-femininas. Ao analisar os gastos com cursos não regulares por Mínimos Quadrados, detectou-se viés pró-masculino na faixa etária de 11 a 14 anos e viés pró-feminino nas demais faixas. Entre as demais estimativas não houve diferenças significativas ou elas foram pró-femininas, independente do procedimento de estimação. Os resultados indicam que a formação das jovens não sofreu discriminação no que tange à disposição das famílias de gastarem com a formação de sua prole, salvo as duas exceções mencionadas. Estes resultados mostraram-se consistentes com o cenário favorável à escolarização feminina no Brasil já apontado em outros estudos. / This study investigated the gender bias presence within the family choices about spending resourses with their children\'s education. A sample of 11386 families was obtained from Household Budget Survey - POF 2002-2003, of the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistic - IBGE. The families had children between 7 and 20 years old, with at least one of them enrolled, considering that no other member of the family, parents or relatives, was enrolled. Engel curves for the overall expenses and for expenditures with educational item groups were estimated. The number of sons and daughters enrolled and the number of sons and daughters not enrolled according to age level are among the explanatory variables. Other socioeconomics and demographic variables controlled the rest of the family characteristics. As 2066 families did not showed expenses with education, the Engel curves were estimated using Tobit models. The Engel curves were also estimated by the method of Least Squares and the results were compared to the ones obtained by Tobit model. The equity between the estimated parameters of the number of sons and daughters enrolled in each age level was verified with Wald test for both the estimation procedures used. The econometric results were consistent with the hypothesis of quantity-quality trade-off which exists within the family decisions when allocating resourses for their children because the total number of children pressed the educational expenditures at decreasing rates. The analysis of total expenses with education, accomplished by both the estimation procedures, indicated significant differences in the impact caused by sons and daughters enrolled at the age level from 7 to 10 and from 15 to 20 with pro-female bias. The analysis of the expenditures with school monthly fees with Tobit models indicated significant differences for both age levels, from 11 to 14 and from 15 to 20, with a pro-female bias in the latter level. With the Minimum Square method there was a pro-female bias in the level of age from 15 to 20 years old, in the other levels there were no significant differences. When the expenditures with non regular courses were analyzed with Tobit model, significant differences were observed from 7 to 10 and from 11 to 14 years old, both pro-female. When the expenditures with non regular courses were analyzed with the Minimum Square method a pro-male bias was detected in the age level from 11 to 14 and a pro-female bias in the other levels. Among the other estimations there were no significant differences or they were pro-female, despite the estimation procedure. The results show that the young girls\' education did not suffer any discrimination related to the family disposition of spending with their children\'s education, apart from the two exceptions mentioned. These results are consistent with the favorable scenario to the female education in Brazil already pointed out in other studies.

Submitted by Reginaldo Soares de Freitas (reginaldo.freitas@ufv.br) on 2018-05-28T13:12:32Z No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 1257101 bytes, checksum: 042d22b14b31a5bf9b031a89d8200110 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-05-28T13:12:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 1257101 bytes, checksum: 042d22b14b31a5bf9b031a89d8200110 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-11-24 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Nas últimas décadas, as famílias brasileiras passaram por muitas transformações. Especificamente, ocorreram várias mudanças demográficas na sociedade, especialmente aquelas relativas à redução da mortalidade e da fecundidade, aumento da longevidade, e aos novos valores associados a este comportamento. Simultaneamente, houve mudanças no tamanho e na composição das famílias (redução no número de filhos, aumento do número de famílias constituídas por casais sem filhos, por mães com filhos, e por pessoas que moram sozinhas), nas relações de gênero e nos padrões de consumo. Assim, devido à existência de uma grande diversidade de arranjos familiares, mais heterogêneos quanto a sua composição e cada vez menores, analisar o padrão de consumo entre os arranjos familiares brasileiros tem grande relevância, pois considerar as especificidades dos distintos grupos pode trazer ganhos significativos para a análise. Para tanto, foram elaborados dois ensaios. O primeiro ensaio buscou analisar o padrão de consumo em grandes categorias agregadas (alimentação, habitação, vestuário, transporte, saúde, educação, recreação e cultura, e outras despesas de consumo) em diferentes arranjos domiciliares no Brasil utilizando dados da Pesquisa de Orçamento Familiar (POF) de 2008-2009. Para isso, foram estimadas Curvas de Engel, levando em consideração o tipo de arranjo domiciliar, o sexo e a escolaridade do responsável pelo domicílio, a renda familiar, presença de crianças, dentre outras variáveis demográficas. Os resultados indicaram a existência de diferenças no padrão de consumo das famílias associadas ao sexo do responsável pelo domicílio, sobretudo nos arranjos do tipo “monoparental” e “unipessoal”. Essas diferenças são mais evidentes nas despesas com Habitação, Saúde e Educação-recreação, em que o os gastos mensais per capita são muito menores para o “monoparental masculino” e “unipessoal masculino” em relação ao “monoparental feminino” e “unipessoal feminino”. Além disso, a hipótese de que a composição da família (presença de filhos, idosos e tamanho da família) afeta as decisões de consumo das famílias também foi verificada. Por exemplo, filhos com idade entre 0 a 6 anos e entre 7 a 12 anos afetam positivamente os gastos per capita com Habitação e Saúde, e afetam negativamente as despesas com Alimentação quando comparados com aqueles domicílios em que não há filhos nessa faixa etária. Já a presença de filhos com idade entre 13 a 18 anos afetam positivamente os gastos per capita com Vestuário e Educação-Recreação. Ademais, notou-se que a presença de idosos influenciam positivamente os gastos per capita com Saúde. Quanto ao tamanho da família, observou-se um efeito maior sobre as despesas com Habitação, Alimentação, Transporte, indicando que as famílias podem se beneficiar dos ganhos de economia de escala e consumo conjunto. Já o segundo ensaio teve como objetivo principal determinar o padrão de demanda de alimentos no Brasil considerando a importância do tipo de arranjo familiar, utilizando dados da Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares (POF) de 2008-2009. Para isso, foi estimado um sistema de demanda para 14 alimentos utilizando o modelo QUAIDS. Observou-se que tanto a renda quanto a idade do responsável pelo domicílio, embora exerçam um efeito pequeno, possuem uma relação de U invertido com a probabilidade de a família consumir a maioria dos alimentos. Pessoas mais escolarizadas tem menor probabilidade de consumo de alimentos básicos. Quanto à composição da família, observou-se que a presença de crianças tem uma influência positiva sobre o consumo de doces. Já a presença de idosos reduz a probabilidade de o domicílio consumir alimentos menos nutritivos, como Açúcar e Alimentos preparados. Além disso, o tamanho da família afeta positivamente a probabilidade de um domicílio adquirir produtos mais básicos. Por fim, foi observado que de fato o tipo de arranjo familiar tem influência sobre a probabilidade de consumo e sobre a quantidade consumida de alimentos pelas famílias. Por exemplo, famílias do tipo “casal com filhos” têm maior probabilidade de consumir os alimentos da amostra, o que pode indicar que as famílias desse tipo realizam mais refeições dentro do domicílio. Já nos arranjos em que a mulher é responsável pelo domicílio, “monoparental feminino” e “unipessoal feminino”, a probabilidade de consumir alimentos no domicílio é menor. Verificou-se também que homens sozinhos consomem mais Alimentos preparados em relação às famílias compostas por “casal com filhos”. / In the last decades, Brazilian families have undergone great transformations. Specifically, there have been several demographic changes in society, especially those related to the reduction of mortality and fertility, longevity increase and new values associated with this behavior. At the same time, there were changes in the size and composition of families (reduction in the number of children, increase in the number of families consisting of couples without children, single mothers, people living alone), gender relations and consumption patterns. Thus, due to the existence of a great diversity of family arrangements, which are more heterogeneous in their composition and smaller, analyzing the pattern of consumption among Brazilian family arrangements has great relevance, since considering the specificities of the different groups can bring gains to the analysis. Therefore, we wrote two essays in the subject. The first essay sought to analyze the pattern of consumption in large aggregate categories (food, housing, clothing, transportation, health, education, recreation and culture, and other consumption expenses) in different household arrangements in Brazil using data from the 2008-2009 Brazilian Household Budget Survey - Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares (POF). We estimated Engel Curves taking into account the type of household living arrangement, the gender and the education level of the person in charge of the household, family income, the presence of children, among other demographic variables. Results indicated the existence of differences in the patterns of consumption of families associated to the gender of the person in charge of the household, especially in “single parent type with children” and “one person households” living arrangements. These differences are most evident in expenditure on housing, health, education-recreation, in which the monthly per capita expenditure is much lower for single fathers and men living alone relative to single mothers and women living alone. Besides that, we verified the hypothesis that the composition of the family (presence of children, elderly people and family size) affects household consumption decisions. For example, children from 0 to 6 and between 7 and 12 years old positively affect per capita spending on Housing and Health, and negatively affect Food expenses when compared to households where there are no children in this age group. The presence of children from 13 to 18 years old positively affects per capita expenditures on Clothing and Education-Recreation. In addition, the presence of elderly people influence positively the per capita expenses on Health. Regarding the size of the family, we observed a greater effect on Housing, Food and Transportation, indicating that the families can benefit from the gains from scale economies and joint consumption. The second essay had as main objective to determine the pattern of food demand in Brazil considering the importance of the type of family arrangement, using data from the 2008-2009 POF. For that, we estimated a demand system comprising 14 foods products using the QUAIDS model. We observed that both the income and the age of the head of household, although having a small effect, have an inverted U-ratio with a probability of a family consuming most of the food products. People that are more educated are less likely to consume staple foods. As for the composition of the family, the presence of children had a positive influence on the consumption of candies. On the other hand, the presence of elderly people reduced the probability of the household consuming less nutritious foods, such as Sugar and Prepared Foods. In addition, family size positively affects the probability of a household purchases staple food products. Finally, we observed that the type of family arrangement do have influence on the probability of consumption and on the quantity of food consumed by families. For example, a “couple with children” family is more likely to consume food, which may indicate more family-like meals within the household, while in the arrangements where the woman is responsible for the household," single mothers” and "women living alone", the probability of consuming food is lower. We also found that men living alone consume more prepared food compared to families composed by "couple with children”.

Based on Ian Steedman's seminal contribution "Consumption Takes Time", we propose a formal activity-based model for consumer behaviour. The model simultaneously incorporates choices over consumption time, as well as quantities and qualities of products consumed. We identify and examine preconditions for satiation with products and draw implications for economic policy. Satiation with products explains the limited effects of price or income changes on demand and questions the pertinence of economic growth for development. It further highlights the relevance of working time reductions for well-being. (authors' abstract)

Objective of this thesis was construction of Engel´s curve of demand for children, separately for mother´s and father´s income. Moreover, analysis shows differences in Engel´s curve according to genders or marital status (if couple is married or not and only lives together). The models were estimated from data of the survey ISSP 2008. Results estimated by OLS models and models with corrected hetoreskedasticity were supported by multinomial regression. Estimations showed that in case of decision about children, women are influenced by income more than men. Own income has negative impact on number of children demanded by woman because of higher opportunity cost. Married women are less influenced by own income than single women, because married women take into the account also income of husband which has positive effect on number of children. In case of men´s demand for children, neither effect of own income nor effect of partner´s income was proven.

Los hogares monoparentales tienen cada vez mayor representación en la población, y estos hogares a menudo enfrentan limitaciones económicas y de tiempo. Por ello, el presente trabajo analiza la proporción de gasto destinado al consumo de alimentos que realizan los hogares peruanos de acuerdo con su estructura. El análisis se basa en las curvas de Engel para hogares, la cual relaciona el gasto total con la proporción del gasto específico en alimentos. Se recurrió a una metodología empírica basada en el modelo Tobit, teniendo en cuenta tanto características socioeconómicas de los jefes y demográficas de los hogares. Se comprueba que además del gasto total, factores como sexo, nivel educativo, edad del jefe, tamaño y composición etaria del hogar influyen en los patrones de consumo que éstos realizan. A pesar de la diferencia que existe en las curvas, se cumple la ley de Engel independiente de la estructura. Estos resultados brindan a los encargados de la formulación de políticas públicas información sobre los patrones de gasto de los hogares y brindan a los profesionales de gestión de recursos familiares información sobre cómo las características de los hogares afectan los gastos. Clasificación JEL: C13, D12, H31. / Abstract: Single-parent households have increasing representation in the population, and these households often face economic and time limitations. Therefore, this investigation analyzes the proportion of expenditure destined to the consumption of food that Peruvian households make according to its structure. The analysis is based on the Engel curves for households, which relates the total expenditure to the proportion of specific food expenditure. An empirical methodology based on the Tobit model was used, taking into account both socioeconomic characteristics of the heads and demographic of households. It is found that in addition to the total expenditure, factors such as sex, educational level, age of the boss, size and age composition of the household influence the consumption patterns they perform. Despite the difference that exists in the curves, Engel's law is independent of the structure. These results provide public policymakers with information on household spending patterns and provide family resource management professionals with information on how household characteristics affect expenditures. JEL classification: C13, D12, H31. / Trabajo de investigación

Abstract not included. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)