As a result of the spread and growth of English as a global means of communication, a new approach to teaching and learning English has recently emerged: ELF – English as a lingua franca (ELF). Graddol (2006: 87) claims that "some of its [ELF] ideas are likely to influence mainstream teaching and assessment practices in the future". Indeed, a shift from traditional EFL goals to ELF has been observed in the documents of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) of Japan. Jenkins (2004) suggests that applied linguists and publishers will need to find ways of promoting a more ELF perspective in teaching materials. However, to begin with, the reason why the ELF approach is necessary for Japanese learners of English should be adequately discussed. Also, how people are likely to respond to the new materials in the future should be investigated. The aim of this thesis is two-fold: (1) to examine current English language teaching practices in Japan from an ELF perspective, and (2) to examine the attitudes of Japanese people towards the new ELF-oriented practice. More specifically, the current study will focus on the teaching materials that are currently being used within the country. The research consists of three parts: (1) the identification of the characteristics of ELF; (2) an analysis of the EFL coursebooks and audiovisual materials according to those traits; and (3) an investigation of the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English to ELForiented coursebooks and audiovisual materials by means of questionnaires and focusgroups. EFL coursebooks and audio materials employed in the state and private sectors were analysed. ELF-orientation was found in different forms and to different degrees according to the level and the objectives of individual materials: this was apparent in the nationalities and contexts represented, in the content of texts, and in English varieties in audio materials. There were some differences between publishers in the degree of ELF orientation. 717 students and 28 teachers were involved in the questionnaire survey. Sixteen students and nine teachers participated in the focus-group discussions. The survey data revealed that the informants showed strong reactions to certain ELF features in materials. They had little objection to ELF-features which were related to contextual factors of ELF (e.g. representation of characters in a dialogue). In contrast, they expressed more opinions regarding ELF-features which were closely related to the issues of a target model (e.g. written forms of non-standard English, and audio recordings which included NNS English). The findings are discussed with regard to the implementation of ELF-oriented materials. Pedagogical implications are proposed for the further development of ELF-oriented materials and for possible changes in English language teaching in the Japanese educational system.

Lin Ming Sum. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves i-xi). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgements / Abstract / 摘要 / Table of Content / List of tables / List of figures / Units of measurement / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- What are formulaic sequences? --- p.2 / Chapter 1.2 --- Importance of researching on formulaic sequences --- p.4 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Wray's works --- p.6 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Distinction between native and normative speakers --- p.9 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Building blocks of language --- p.10 / Chapter 1.2.4 --- Processing Unit --- p.11 / Chapter 1.2.5 --- A pragmatic phenomenon in social interactions --- p.13 / Chapter 1.3 --- Rationale --- p.17 / Chapter 1.4 --- Objectives --- p.19 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Literature Review --- p.20 / Chapter 2.1 --- Defining formulaic sequences --- p.20 / Chapter 2.2 --- The development of research on formulaic sequences --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Context of formulaic sequences research --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Milestone works on formulaic language --- p.29 / Chapter 2.2.2.1 --- The first phase --- p.30 / Chapter 2.2.2.2 --- The second phase --- p.33 / Chapter 2.2.2.3 --- The third phase --- p.35 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Questions and problems surrounding the field --- p.38 / Chapter 2.3 --- Relationship between fluency and the use of formulaic sequences --- p.44 / Chapter 2.4 --- Methods of identification of formulaic sequences --- p.50 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- The criteria listed by other researchers --- p.50 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Intuition --- p.58 / Chapter 2.4.3 --- Case studies --- p.60 / Chapter 2.4.4 --- Corpus tools --- p.62 / Chapter 2.4.5 --- Phonological features --- p.65 / Chapter 2.4.6 --- Other methodologies --- p.67 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Methodology --- p.72 / Chapter 3.1 --- Research questions --- p.72 / Chapter 3.1 --- The tasks --- p.73 / Chapter 3.2 --- The subjects --- p.74 / Chapter 3.3 --- Data collection --- p.75 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Data analysis --- p.77 / Chapter Chapter 5 --- Findings --- p.80 / Chapter 5.1 --- Use of formulaic sequences by native and normative speakers --- p.80 / Chapter 5.2 --- Interaction between NS/NNS factor and task type --- p.81 / Chapter 5.3 --- Analysis of individual performance --- p.82 / Chapter 5.4 --- Fluency and the use of formulaic language --- p.85 / Chapter 5.5 --- Time on task and the use of formulaic language --- p.87 / Chapter 5.6 --- Use of formulaic language and mean length of each turn --- p.89 / Chapter 5.7 --- Articulation rate of formulaic sequences --- p.90 / Chapter 5.8 --- Summary of findings --- p.91 / Chapter Chapter 6 --- Discussion --- p.93 / Chapter 6.1 --- Use of formulaic language by native and normative speakers --- p.93 / Chapter 6.2 --- Interaction between NS/NNS factor and task type --- p.97 / Chapter 6.3 --- The use of formulaic language and fluency --- p.97 / Chapter 6.4 --- Time on task and the use of formulaic language --- p.99 / Chapter 6.5 --- Length of each turn and the use of formulaic language --- p.103 / Chapter 6.6 --- Rate analysis --- p.105 / Chapter 6.7 --- Summary of the discussion --- p.106 / Chapter Chapter 7 --- Limitations --- p.107 / Chapter Chapter 8 --- Implications of this study --- p.110 / Chapter 8.1 --- Implications for research --- p.110 / Chapter 8.2 --- Implications for pedagogy --- p.111 / Chapter Chapter 9 --- Directions for future research --- p.116 / Chapter Chapter 10 --- Conclusion --- p.119 / Bibliography --- p.i / Appendices --- p.xii / Instructions for the Picture Story Telling --- p.xii / Picture series 1: Picnic --- p.xiii / Picture series 2: Football --- p.xiv / Instructions for the Problem-solving task --- p.xv / Problem-solving task: The Problem Page --- p.xvi

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University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of English

This thesis makes use of an online survey to study the current state of language use among newspapers in the American Midwest. Specifically, it examines editors’ attitudes toward and adaptation to changed language over the course of the last fifteen years. Those years have seen a general relaxation of language-use standards in the allowance of profanity, as well as changes brought about by emerging electronic media including the Internet and text messaging. The survey results indicate editors are gradually reacting to these changes, as opposed to leading the charge for change themselves. / Department of Journalism

Inaugural lecture delivered at Rhodes University / Rhodes University Libraries (Digitisation)

Gauteng is one of South Africa’s nine provinces, and is representative of a diversity of languages and cultures. It is a linguistic and cultural melting pot with all eleven official languages spoken in the province. Because of the language contact situation in this province, languages tend to influence one another and this results in situations wherein a majority of speakers are bi- or multilingual. Instances of code-switching, code-mixing, and lexical borrowing (or adoption) are also abounding. In Gauteng, young and old black people tend to use black urban speech varieties. Nonstandard black urban speech varieties such as Tsotsitaal and Is’camtho have been studied extensively in South Africa. The study of black urban language varieties in Gauteng, particularly in English, has not received much attention from sociolinguists and has only been discussed in passing by scholars (see Calteaux, 1994). Studies on Tsotsitaal and Is’camtho have attempted to discuss the structure of and reasons for the employment of these varieties. In conducting the research on black youth slang in English, this study is an attempt at contributing to available research on slang in South Africa. Studies on slang have focused on other language groups and regions. However, no attempts have been made at describing the slang of black youth in Gauteng Province, particularly those who are not L1 speakers of English. The present study aims at contributing to the study of non-standard black urban speech varieties such as Tsotsitaal and Is’camtho. The current study tries to provide a sociolinguistic description of the slang used by black youth in Gauteng, who use English as a second language (L2) or additional language (AL). The research begins with definitions and explanations of concepts relevant to the investigation. The study defines such terms as ‘slang’, ‘black’, ‘youth’ and ‘youth culture’ amongst others. The theoretical approach used in this study is also discussed in this section. Black youth slang in English (hereafter referred to as BYSE) in Gauteng (GP) is discussed in relation to other non-standard black urban language varieties such as Tsotsitaal and Is’camtho. This serves to explain how BYSE differs from the two varieties. The functions of slang as outlined by previous researchers on the subject are also discussed, with the intention of using these as a benchmark to the present study. This study used both qualitative and quantitative methods of research. These included a combination of written questionnaires, interviews (group discussions), and personal observations. The two methodologies were necessary in an attempt to arrive at a better comprehension of the slang used by the group under investigation. The data gathered served to investigate the reasons for using slang and the functions the words they employ serve, by looking at the slang as used in particular contexts as well as at the lexical items they employ. The study also looks at how their use of slang tends to draw on the lexicon from other languages spoken in the Province. The data gathered from the written questionnaires was then sent to Statkon, at the University of Johannesburg, for analysis. The researcher further used interviews (group discussions) and personal observations to augment the results from the questionnaires. The researcher adopts the notion of slang as a register according to use and discusses the findings according to Halliday’s theoretical stance of language as social practice (1978). Emphasis is on dimensions such as field, mode and tenor of discourse as relevant to this study in an attempt to explain the contexts of situation in which the youth under investigation use slang. The research also considers other social aspects of language variation as relevant to this study. The study concludes with recommendations on the need for further research on the language of youth. Amongst others is the recommendation it makes about the study of youth language (particularly slang) and its educational implications in the language classroom. / Dr. Anne-Marie Beukes

In the majority of the schools in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, teaching and learning takes place in the second language, English, of both teachers and learners. The purpose of this research was to elicit the perceptions of teachers in multilingual mathematics classes about language issues that they encounter and to ascertain whether they could experientially learn the theory of dialogic teaching through an intervention in order to introduce dialogue in practice in their classes. The effect of the intervention on teacher practices was qualitatively observed and the effect of the teacher practices on learner reasoning competence, numeracy competence and English language competence was quantitatively tested by using validated pre- and post-tests. The study follows a mixed method concurrent triangulation design with both quantitative and qualitative results. Two cohorts of students/teachers studying for qualifications at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University centres throughout the Eastern Cape expressed their opinions about language challenges and solutions through questionnaires, reflective writing and poetry. A cohort of BEd Honours (Mathematics and Science) students experienced a semester long intervention on the theory and practice of dialogic teaching, particularly exploratory talk, and were tasked to introduce the practice into their multilingual mathematics classes in the form of reported action research. The next phase of the study focussed on the practices of three teachers and their grade seven multilingual mathematics learners who were observed and tested over a period of nine months. The following year the observations and testing were repeated with one teacher and his grade seven learners to ascertain whether the intervention would result in similar findings. iv The results enhance the validity of the Vygotskian claim concerning the relationship between language use, social interaction and reasoning development. In classes where there was evidence of dialogic practices the learners collaborated in groups using code-switching and their main language. Their reasoning, numeracy and English skills test scores improved statistically significantly. Teachers were able to give voice to their deep-felt emotions through poetry. They felt that the devaluing of isiXhosa had resulted in the loss of learners’ main language literacy competencies and consequent loss of cultural capital; however they considered it necessary to develop English competence in the learners, even if it was at the expense of developing mathematical competence. The introduction of exploratory talk in their home languages served the dual purpose of promoting the value of isiXhosa in an academic environment as well as enhancing mathematical reasoning. It appears that when teachers focus on developing language as a tool for reasoning, significant improvements in learners’ problem solving competences occur. When the language used is the main language of both teachers and learners both mathematical understanding and cultural identity are enhanced. The study concludes with a suggestion for a model for future interventions to train teachers to introduce dialogic practices in multilingual mathematics classes.

Good writing is essential for business. Writing is evaluated using holistic and analytical assessment of writing samples.

The problem of the present study is to investigate specific background areas of pupils who show average use of English, and of pupils who are recognized as having below-average use of English. The study will attempt to bring out certain tendencies, by the use of standardized tests, which the two groups investigated possess in varying degrees. The aim of the study will be to bring out and evaluate the differentiating background factors as revealed by the results obtained on the standardized tests used in the investigation.