This thesis explores urban smoke and its nuisances in Georgian England, especially focusing on the period, 1800-1830. During this period, a number of English towns experienced accelerated industrialisation and many of them first experienced air pollution. In 1821, Michael Angelo Taylor, MP, passed a parliamentary bill on smoke abatement, Taylor’s Act. Although it has generally been believed that the Act did not have much of a social impact, this thesis argues that the Act diffused the usage of smoke abatement technology and triggered dozens of legal cases. The geographical focus of this thesis is Leeds and London. The Leeds case study examines the Leeds smoke abatement campaign and the smoke nuisance court case against Benjamin Gott, a leading merchant/ manufacturer in Leeds. It shows that the confusion over the effectiveness of smoke abatement technology represented the main difficulty in the smoke abatement campaign. The court case between the Duke of Northumberland and Clowes represents an example of the London nuisance cases in the 1820s. After the introduction of the steam press, the printing business became a polluting business. Because the plaintiff was the aristocrat, the case was interpreted as a class issue between aristocrat and middle-class printer. However, it was the Duke’s servants who suffered most from the nuisance and the case shows more complex class politics. This thesis also explores smoke nuisance caused by conventional smoke-producing industries in London, waterworks and brickmaking. Some water companies adopted smoke abatement technology but the confusion over the effectiveness of the technology can be observed in London, too. Taylor’s Act did not directly influence brickmaking business but it could cause nuisance to its neighbours, especially nurseries and gardens.

The optimisation of biogas digesters is crucial for further development of sustainable energy sources. In this research, an integrative approach was taken to understanding how this problem can be addressed including: seeking a better understanding of protein – surface interactions on the molecular level; larger scale experiments to screen the best materials for use in laboratory scale anaerobic digesters to influence microbial growth and biofilm development as well as analysis of farm-scale data using the ADM1 multiparameter model. The laboratory-scale experiments were undertaken to develop surfaces suitable for studying microbial immobilization. This work, currently using tertiary amines, amine oxides and comparator oligoethylene glycol studies the adsorption of two classic model proteins: lysozyme and fibrinogen using quartz crystal microbalance methods and represents important steps for selecting and exploring surface – protein interactions. The data showed that tertiary amine oxides are more resistant to nonspecific protein adsorption than the corresponding tertiary amines. Heat modified polyurethane foam was used to explore biofilm and planktonic phase microbial populations in a fixed film biogas reactor. After four weeks the foam was analysed by ‘next generation’ 454-sequencing to identify the influence of the supporting materials on microbial population residing in anaerobic digesters. The results revealed that Spirochaetes, Methanobacterium and Methanocorpusculum associated themselves with heat modified polyurethane foams. Finally, data from a farm-scale anaerobic digester (volatile fatty acid concentration, temperature and pH) have been gathered and entered into the ADM1 model, developed by the mathematical modelling group from Lund University, to mimic the behaviour of a laboratory scale 1.5 l reactor and identify improved conditions for methanogens stability. The combination of approaches described above will allow the identification of which parameters will enhance the operation of anaerobic digesters and has identified surfaces that promote adhesion of particular Bacteria and Archaea in order to increase biogas production.

Local weather data (wind direction, wind speed and temperature) from meteorological stations and daily synoptic data have been examined in relation to airborne particulate material (PM10) concentrations recorded at 17 pollution monitoring sites throughout Kent for the period 2000 to 2008, as an aid to understanding dispersal patterns in relation to topography. In general, local and synoptic wind direction patterns followed the same trends: the yearly distribution is dominated by southwesterly winds, followed by winds from the west and the northwest. Detailed analysis of local wind patterns at four sites (two coastal and two inland) strongly suggested the presence of seas breezes, reaching maximum frequency between March and August and fewest occurrences between November and February. Transport of PM10 over 30 km inland was also inferred. In addition to local wind transport, the location of the pollution monitoring sites and their environment are key to explaining the differences in PM10 concentrations recorded between the sites. The 10 sites located on roadsides registered the highest number of particle counts, followed by the five sites located within urban areas. The lowest amount of particles was found at the two rural sites. The five roadside sites closest to London (two in Gravesham and three in Dartford) exceeded the daily recommended amount of 50 μg/m3 several times each month, probably reflecting the increased road traffic in those areas. Aside from the variation in PM10 amount between sites, seasonal differences were also observed, with the lowest amount of PM10 recorded in the autumn and the highest in spring. Episodes of pollution affecting the whole of Kent were also observed. These were more clearly related to the synoptic situation rather than any local wind variations and appear to indicate regional or trans-boundary pollution transport. The latter is also supported by preliminary evidence from a PM10 trap sampling at a site on the south coast.

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate what barriers and drivers influences the internationalization of private Swedish cleantech firms. The model of a multiple case study was chosen together with a qualitative method and an abductive approach. This was done by acquiring primary information from seven private cleantech companies, all located in Sweden and active in international markets. Furthermore, the theoretical framework presented the Uppsala model, network perspective, international new ventures, born globals, transaction cost theory and the OLI-model. With this theoretical framework, a conceptual model was created which shows how the parts are connected. In the empirical chapter, the primary data is presented to visualize what each individual company said regarding the different constructs of internationalization, drivers, barriers and internationalization decisions. Moreover, the analysis chapter visualizes the similarities and the dissimilarities between the theory and the empirical findings. The thesis concludes that there are both general, as well as specific barriers and drivers that are influential in the internationalization process of private Swedish cleantech firms. These are shown to influence the internationalization decision of managers to take an incremental approach to internationalization. The authors of the thesis also present the view that Swedish cleantech companies are generally too small, lack the financial resources and managerial drive needed to internationalize. The authors also present the theoretical and practical implications and provide recommendations for future research.

The application of DNA sequencing-based approaches to drinking water microbial ecology has revealed the presence of an abundant and diverse microbiome; therefore, the possibility of harnessing drinking water (DW) microbial communities is an attractive prospect in order to address some of the current and emerging challenges in the sector. Moreover, these multiple challenges suggest that a shift in the DW sector, from a “reactive and sanctioning” paradigm to a “due diligence/proactive” based approach may be the key in identifying potentially adverse events. My research project has focused on the characterization of the microbial ecology of full-scale DW systems using DNA sequencing-based approaches, with the aim of exploring how the obtained insights could be applied into a predictive/proactive microbial management approach. To achieve this aim, I have focused my efforts on sampling multiple full-scale DW systems in order to elucidate the impacts of: (i) methodological variation and (ii) system properties on DW microbial communities, using a combination of bioinformatics, molecular biology, microbial ecology and multivariate statistical analyses. Regarding methodological variation, I have elucidated the impacts of sample replication, PCR replication, sample volume and sampling flow rate on the structure and membership of DW microbial communities. This was the first time that methodological variation was explored in the DW context, and the first time that multi-level replication has been tested and applied in DW molecular microbial ecology. Moreover, my findings have direct implications for the design of future sampling campaigns. Regarding system properties, I have shown that microbial communities in DW distribution systems (DWDSs) undergo diurnal variation, and therefore are linked to water use patters/hydraulics in the systems. I have also shown that sampling locations in the same distribution system are similar, with OTUs found across sampling locations at different relative abundance and detection frequency levels. An assessment of the impact of source water type and treatment processes showed that disinfection is a key treatment step for community composition and functional potential, and that several genes related to protection against chlorine/oxygen species are overabundant in chlorinated and chloraminated systems. Looking to the future, I believe that the application of a “toolbox” of techniques is key in shifting towards a proactive approach in DW management, that multidisciplinary synergies hold the possibility of changing the way in which DW systems have been studied and managed for over 100 years.

Water, otherwise known as the pool of life, is the very essence of all living things and as such is vital for survival, whether for living beings, social, economic development or for environmental sustainability. However, its continuing existence is severely threatened for future as a result of climate change, carbon footprint, population growth, environmental damage, combined with natural disasters like droughts and floods. The prospect of an alternative solution such as desalination of sea or brackish water to counter the limit on conventional water resources such as groundwater, which cannot meet demand, is therefore very promising, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where water scarcity and impaired quality prevails. Consequently, desalination technology has now become a burgeoning industry in North Africa or southern Mediterranean countries, such as in Libya. However, evidence suggests that as a result of by-products being discharged directly into the sea, particularly from coastal desalination plants, the physico-chemical parameters of the receiving water are changing and posing a threat to marine ecosystems. As a result of studies conducted on these parameters to analyse the brine emitted from the Zwuarah and the West Tripoli distillation plants (ZWDP & WTRIS) on the Libyan coastline, evidence shows there is a significant positive correlation at both sites between the biological data and physico-chemical parameters (rs=0.673; p=0.002) and (rs=0.637; p=0.003), which is a clear indication of the impact of brine disposal from both plants on the marine environment. For most of coastal desalination plants on the Libyan coastline, the most practical and least expensive brine disposal option is to discharge it into the sea. It is necessary therefore, to effectively manage desalination reject brine in order to ensure more efficient disposal and reuse. Therefore, it is suggested that experimental studies are aimed for dual benefit of on-site generation of sodium hypochlorite through brine electrolysis and to recover minerals and NaCl from the brine using evaporation ponds, while protecting the environment. Following the first experiment, the outcome of brine utilisation showed a significant production of NaOCl using graphite electrodes (MCCA 1.82 gr/m3). At interelectrode spacing 2 cm and 4 cm, the power consumption was higher, with a greater concentration of sodium hypochlorite generation varying between 10-25 kw/m3 (573-2140ppm) and 29-24 kwm-3 (572-2600ppm) than at interelectrode spacing 6cm 17-13 kwm-3 (350-1790ppm). Consequently, the selection of an optimum electrical consumption level is key in establishing the best scenario in terms of economy and efficiency. Subsequent to the second experiment of brine evaporation in the ponds, results showed that the evaporation rate in August was lower than in September (9.06 mmday-1, 14.63 mmday-1) respectively. The results of the SEM/EDS test showed that due to elevated surges of Na+ and Cl-, halite (NaCl) was the main mineral evident during crystallisation of the salt samples. Hence, the two experiments reveal that brine can be recycled productively, while protecting the environment.

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) fouling is the most commonly observed fouling phenomenon in cooling water applications. Fouling happens when a process uses cooling water supersaturated with mineral salt crystals (i.e. hard water). Precipitation deposits on heat transfer surfaces whenever these inversely-soluble salt crystals, like dissolved calcium ions, are exposed to high temperature. An online-monitoring system for fouling phenomena was studied experimentally using a mixture of sodium bicarbonate and calcium chloride for carbonate fouling salt in de-ionized water. The effects of different parameters such as surface temperature, flow velocity, and concentration on the calcium carbonate scale formation process were experimentally investigated by using the developed monitoring system. The calcium carbonate deposition rates on five different metal surfaces (Stainless steel 316, brass, copper, aluminum and carbon steel) were investigated. The surface was analyzed by analytical microscopy to investigate the morphology of the deposit layer. The results revealed that SS316 yielded the lowest deposition on the surface. Nowadays, hazardous chemical additives are often used to mitigate fouling but chemicals are expensive and pose problems to the environment. Physical water treatment (PWT), a non-chemical method is good alternative for fouling mitigation method. PWT using zinc and tourmaline as catalytic materials is presented in this research work. Fouling tests were conducted for verification of this PWT method. Artificially-hardened water at 300 mgL-1 was utilized as the fluid medium to form fouling deposits. The hard water flow velocities were varied from 0.15 ms-1 to 0.45 ms-1 and the artificially-hardened water temperature was maintained at 25 oC and the experimental time was set to 72 hours for each run. The results revealed that in the PWT-treatment case, the deposition of calcium carbonate particle is lower compared to those in the No-treatment case. Furthermore, mitigation of calcium carbonate fouling by applying EDTA, EDTA-MWCNT and DTPA-MWCNT-based water nanofluids on heat exchanger surfaces were reported. Investigation of additive (benign to the environment) on the fouling rate of deposition was performed. Assessment of the deposition of calcium carbonate on the heat exchanger surfaces with respect to the inhibition of crystal growth was conducted by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The results showed that the formation of calcium carbonate crystals can be retarded significantly by adding MWCNT-DTPA additives as inhibition in the solution. Moreover, investigation was extended by introducing a non-invasive-monitoring of concentrations of calcium hardness in cooling water. Investigation was conducted with a 2.5 GHz microwave cavity resonator. The principle of electric dipole moment theories were used to analyse the sample solution that occurs as a function of calcium ion content. The sample was centrally positioned in the electric field of the TM010 mode of a resonant cylindrical cavity. COMSOL simulation package was used to compare and validate the experimental cavity resonator frequency. Transmission signal (S21) measurements via Vector Network Analyser (VNA) with different concentrations were investigated and observed linear relationship in amplitude with frequency changes. These research successfully introduce a novel technique of monitoring of water hardness concentration by using non-invasive microwave sensor.

A new model for the simulation of street canyon atmospheric chemical processing has been developed, by integrating an existing Large-Eddy Simulation (LES) dynamical model of canyon atmospheric motion with a detailed chemical reaction mechanism, the Reduced Chemical Scheme (RCS), comprising 51 chemical species and 136 reactions, based upon a subset of the Master Chemical Mechanism (MCM). The combined LES-RCS model is used to investigate both the effects of mixing and chemical processing upon air quality within an idealised street canyon. The effect of the combination of dynamical (segregation) and chemical effects is determined by comparing the outputs of the full LES-RCS canyon model with those obtained when representing the canyon as a zero-dimensional box model (i.e. assuming mixing is complete and instantaneous). The LES-RCS approach predicts lower (canyon-averaged) levels of NOX, OH and HO2, but higher levels of O3, compared with the box model run under identical chemical and emission conditions. Chemical processing of emissions within the canyon leads to a significant increase in the Ox flux from the canyon into the overlying boundary layer, relative to primary emissions, for the idealised case and a number of pollution scenarios considered. These results demonstrate that within-canyon atmospheric chemical processing can substantially alter the concentrations of pollutants injected into the urban canopy layer, compared with the raw emission rates within the street canyon and that such variations have a considerable effect on average within canyon concentrations and the flux of pollutants out of the canyon into the urban background environment.

Research has been undertaken to develop new yttria slurry systems for use in mould face coats for investment casting TiAl alloy, solving the pre-gelation problems of commercial yttria slurry systems to increase slurry life. Meanwhile, the new face coats should also have excellent sintering properties, chemical inertness, surface finish and be easy to prepare. The processes of developing the new slurry started with the filler powder investigation by adding different sintering additives into the yttria powder to achieve good sintering properties. Then the best filler powder candidates were selected to make the slurry. Finally, the new face coat slurries were used to make the shell face coat and the chemical inertness of those shells were investigated through the sessile drop and investment casting. In the research, the filler powder and face coat sintering properties were quantified through density, dilatometer testing, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and microstructural change at different testing temperatures. The interaction of different face coat systems and the metal were identified using hardness tests, sessile drop contact angle and the microstructural change at the metal/shell interface. In this research, three water-based binder face coat systems containing YF\(_3\), Y\(_2\)O\(_3\)+0.5wt% Al\(_2\)O\(_3\)+ 0.5 wt% ZrO\(_2\) (YAZ), and B\(_2\)O\(_3\) additives were found to have similar or even better sintering properties compared to a commercial face coat. Meanwhile, they had long life.

Developing countries pay a high price for water treatment due to importation of water treatment chemicals. Today, more than 663 million people lack access to a clean water supply which results in many deaths. Hibiscus plant seeds, namely Okra, Sabdariffa and Kenaf were investigated to identify their suitability as alternative water treatment materials to provide clean water supply to people in developing countries. Coagulation and disinfection ability of the extracts were assessed using a jar tester and Collilert-18 Quanti-Tray methods whereas dissolved organic carbon (DOC) test was performed using Shimadzu TOC analyser. The results of this work revealed that all the seed samples possess an anionic coagulant protein with a low molecular weight of 39 kDa. The potential of the seeds in crude form was clearly demonstrated, albeit with some issues regarding organic nutrient addition to the clarified water. However, this challenge was overcome by purifying the seed proteins in an ion exchange column where the impact of DOC addition was significantly reduced in the treated water, as demonstrated via fluorescence excitation-emission matrices. Additionally, the coagulant proteins identified in the region of tryptophan-like fluorescence were found to be stable after heat treatment. Furthermore, sludge production using seed extracts was found to be 5 times lower than that of aluminium sulphate (AS) and the pH of the treated water remained largely unaffected after treatment. Floc strength tests, undertaken using a laser diffraction instrument Mastersizer 2000, showed that the use of seeds as coagulant aids in combination with AS improved floc properties, leading to faster floc growth and shorter coagulation time.