The Hirnantian mass extinction was the second largest of the Phanerozoic. A global sea level fall resulting from a glaciation on Gondwanaland caused significant changes in ocean circulation patterns and nutrient cycling that is recorded as a worldwide positive δ13C excursion.<p> In chapter 2, carbon and nitrogen isotope profiles were reconstructed from two North American carbonate platforms in Nevada and one in the Yukon with the purpose of gaining a better understanding of proximal to proximal gradients in δ13C values from Hirnantian epeiric seaway sediment. Positive δ13C excursions are recorded in bulk inorganic and organic carbon fractions from all three sections, and in graptolite periderms from one section. A larger positive excursion is recorded in the proximal sediment (7) compared to proximal sediment (3-4). This gradient appears to reflect differences in surface water dissolved inorganic carbon δ13C values across epeiric seas. These findings are consistent with the carbonate weathering hypothesis, that predicts larger positive δ13C shifts in proximal settings of tropical epeiric seas resulting from changes in the local carbon weathering flux caused by the exposure of vast areas of carbonate sediment during glacioeustatic sea level fall and restricted shelf circulation. A 2 positive excursion in δ15N is interpreted to result from increased ocean ventilation, greater partitioning of atmospheric oxygen into downwelling surface waters, oxygen minimum zone shrinkage, and declining denitrification rates. This allowed for upwelling of recycled nitrogen with high 15N values into the photic zone that forced exported organic matter from the photic zone to higher 15N values, consistent with the observed positive shift in 15N during the Hirnantian glaciation. This study presents a conceptual model to explain secular changes in δ13C and δ15N during the transition from a greenhouse to icehouse climate.<p> The second focus of this research, presented in chapter 3, was on improving the chemical and analytical methods for δ18O analysis of biogenic apatites. The technique applies cation exchange chromatography that allows for small sample sizes of apatite (200 µg) to be used for chemical conversion to Ag3PO4. The precision (0.15, 1) of δ18O analysis obtained using a Thermal Conversion Elemental Analyser Continuous Flow Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer (TC/EA CF-IRMS), and the ability to collect multipe isotopes (O, Ca, Sr, REE) using a cation exchange column, makes this technique valuable for high-resolution, multi-isotope studies of biogenic apatites.

The Hirnantian mass extinction was the second largest of the Phanerozoic. A global sea level fall resulting from a glaciation on Gondwanaland caused significant changes in ocean circulation patterns and nutrient cycling that is recorded as a worldwide positive δ13C excursion.<p> In chapter 2, carbon and nitrogen isotope profiles were reconstructed from two North American carbonate platforms in Nevada and one in the Yukon with the purpose of gaining a better understanding of proximal to proximal gradients in δ13C values from Hirnantian epeiric seaway sediment. Positive δ13C excursions are recorded in bulk inorganic and organic carbon fractions from all three sections, and in graptolite periderms from one section. A larger positive excursion is recorded in the proximal sediment (7) compared to proximal sediment (3-4). This gradient appears to reflect differences in surface water dissolved inorganic carbon δ13C values across epeiric seas. These findings are consistent with the carbonate weathering hypothesis, that predicts larger positive δ13C shifts in proximal settings of tropical epeiric seas resulting from changes in the local carbon weathering flux caused by the exposure of vast areas of carbonate sediment during glacioeustatic sea level fall and restricted shelf circulation. A 2 positive excursion in δ15N is interpreted to result from increased ocean ventilation, greater partitioning of atmospheric oxygen into downwelling surface waters, oxygen minimum zone shrinkage, and declining denitrification rates. This allowed for upwelling of recycled nitrogen with high 15N values into the photic zone that forced exported organic matter from the photic zone to higher 15N values, consistent with the observed positive shift in 15N during the Hirnantian glaciation. This study presents a conceptual model to explain secular changes in δ13C and δ15N during the transition from a greenhouse to icehouse climate.<p> The second focus of this research, presented in chapter 3, was on improving the chemical and analytical methods for δ18O analysis of biogenic apatites. The technique applies cation exchange chromatography that allows for small sample sizes of apatite (200 µg) to be used for chemical conversion to Ag3PO4. The precision (0.15, 1) of δ18O analysis obtained using a Thermal Conversion Elemental Analyser Continuous Flow Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer (TC/EA CF-IRMS), and the ability to collect multipe isotopes (O, Ca, Sr, REE) using a cation exchange column, makes this technique valuable for high-resolution, multi-isotope studies of biogenic apatites.

Studies examining bioevents (e.g., mass extinctions, faunal turnovers, diversification events) usually only scrutinize a short interval prior to such events, however, understanding their actual paleobiological implications requires a thorough understanding of the background conditions. The objective of this study is to document the background biodiversity dynamics in a single lithofacies of the Upper Cretaceous Pierre Shale that was deposited in an offshore setting of the Western Interior Seaway (WIS) and to place these changes into an environmental context. To assess the background biodiversity dynamics, the concretionary faunas of the Baculites eliasi through B. clinolobatus biozones of the Pierre Shale in eastern Wyoming were examined to understand the structure of marine habitats in the WIS through an interval of ~2.5 Ma. Both changes in the taxonomic composition of assemblages and the relative abundance of the various species are interpreted to reflect ecological and environmental change through the study interval. The concretionary faunas are thought to represent relatively short-term, time-averaged accumulations of dead and living animals on the muddy sea floor of the WIS that were concentrated by storm or current activity. They are likely accurate representations of the original skeletonized fauna of the WIS. The samples with lower diversity and abundances show a relationship with intervals when water conditions were deepest and the paleoshoreline was furthest to the west, while higher diversity and abundances match periods when the paleoshoreline was the closest and shallow-water conditions prevailed in that part of the WIS. The decrease in diversity with depth can best be explained by the long-term presence of dysoxic/anoxic conditions that would have precluded benthic faunas. The distribution of taxa and diversity of the assemblages seen in the study interval most likely reflect migrating oxygen-controlled biofacies in the WIS that were responding to changes in depth and the proximity to the western shoreline that was in turn controlled by relative sea-level fluctuations. This analysis shows that significant changes in richness, abundance, and guild structure can arise in response to variations in sea level with no apparent changes in lithology. It is also shown that a lack of environmental context can significantly influence interpretations of paleobiological and paleoecological data and it is recommended that future lines of research should examine faunal, morphological, and ecological change in a time/environmental context.