Whale-watching is a major tourism venture in developed and developing countries around the world. The management and conservation of this industry is dependent on social, economic, and ecological factors, but long-term ecological research is often absent. In this study, I present an example of a mature whale-watching location where research on all three variables is available. The University of Victoria’s Whale Research Lab has studied gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) in Clayoquot Sound, Vancouver Island for over 25 years and I use this information to form the basis for management recommendations that promote sustainable whale-watching practices and other resource use. To do this, I review how whale-watching is managed in Canada, B.C., and Clayoquot Sound, including the legislation and voluntary guidelines that are currently in place, and previous recommendations that have been made. I then analyze how whale-watching is conducted in southern Clayoquot Sound. I quantify boat behaviour with respect to whales and present six indicators of industry pressure that have been related to cetacean disturbance. The 2012 and 2013 seasons had significantly different numbers of whales present, and this was reflected in the fleet behaviour. Whale-watching activities do not appear to alter gray whale foraging efforts between seasons. Results indicated that both industry pressure and vessel behaviour with respect to whales changes depending on the season and the biological dynamics that influence whale presence. Finally, I synthesize findings of the Whale Research Lab in conjunction with my preceding chapters and present five management recommendations to all stakeholders with a vested interest in the continuation of sustainable whale-watching practices in Clayoquot Sound. / Graduate / 0366 / 0329

While direct measurements of energetic demands are nearly impossible to collect on large cetaceans, comprehensive bioenergetic models can give insights on such parameters by combining physiological and ecological knowledge. This model was developed to estimate necessary food intake of gray whales, Eschrichtius robustus, of the Eastern North Pacific stock. Field Metabolic Rates (FMR) for gray whales were first estimated based on various assumptions (e.g. volumetric representation of gray whales, extent of their feeding season, and blubber depth distribution) using morphometric data, energetic costs, and food assimilation according to age and gender specific requirements. Food intake rates for gray whales of varying maturity and gender were then estimated based on FMR and caloric value of prey and compared to food intake rates of previous studies. Monte Carlo simulations and sensitivity analysis were performed to assess the model's predictions compared to observed field data from previous studies. Predicted average food intakes for adult male, pregnant/ lactating female, and immature whales were 475 ± 300, 525 ± 300 and 600 ± 300 kg d-1, respectively. Estimated blubber depths resulting from these food intakes were comparable to field data obtained from whaling data. Sensitivity analysis indicated food intake, from all parameters, as having the highest impact on the percent change in ending mass from a simulation. These food intake estimates are similar to those found in a previous study and fall within the range of food intake per body mass observed in other species of cetaceans. Though thermoregulation can be a factor in some cetaceans, it appears not to be an additional cost for gray whales as the present model's predicted lower critical temperatures for the whales (TLC) were below ambient temperatures. With temperatures increasing in the Bering Sea, the main prey of gray whales, ampeliscid amphipods, could be adversely affected, possibly resulting in increased food shortages leading to a surge in gray whale strandings.

A small number of eastern north Pacific gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus), known as the Pacific Coastal Feeding Group (PCFG) forage during the summer months in the coastal waters between California and Alaska. Although several studies have analyzed the population structure of the PCFG, maternal learning and predator/prey dynamics have not been studied in detail. In this study I characterize fine scale habitat use and site fidelity of eastern north Pacific gray whales in one foraging site within the PCFG’s foraging range. I approach this study by examining site fidelity to Clayoquot Sound in increasing detail at different time scales. Using the variability recorded in 17 field seasons of whale census surveys (1997-2013) as a proxy for fluctuations in prey, I suggest that the combination of physical properties of the study area and the life history characteristics of the primary prey species type enable Clayoquot Sound to persist as a foraging site through time. The analysis of photographic identification data collected between 1998-2013 indicates that Clayoquot Sound is one site within a larger foraging range, and that annual fluctuations in prey density are related to site fidelity and residency time. By identifying cow/calf pairs using photographic identification data collected between 1998-2013 I characterize internal recruitment via maternal learning within Clayoquot Sound. A calf’s site fidelity is related to its mother’s site fidelity, but its residency time is related to annual fluctuations in prey density. In contrast, a cow’s residency time is not related to changes in prey, but increases in duration when accompanied by a calf. The interplay between fluctuations in prey productivity, and the age and gender of individuals, are the variables that most likely influence the distribution of PCFG whales intra- and inter-annually. / Graduate / 0306