While direct measurements of energetic demands are nearly impossible to collect on large cetaceans, comprehensive bioenergetic models can give insights on such parameters by combining physiological and ecological knowledge. This model was developed to estimate necessary food intake of gray whales, Eschrichtius robustus, of the Eastern North Pacific stock. Field Metabolic Rates (FMR) for gray whales were first estimated based on various assumptions (e.g. volumetric representation of gray whales, extent of their feeding season, and blubber depth distribution) using morphometric data, energetic costs, and food assimilation according to age and gender specific requirements. Food intake rates for gray whales of varying maturity and gender were then estimated based on FMR and caloric value of prey and compared to food intake rates of previous studies. Monte Carlo simulations and sensitivity analysis were performed to assess the model's predictions compared to observed field data from previous studies. Predicted average food intakes for adult male, pregnant/ lactating female, and immature whales were 475 ± 300, 525 ± 300 and 600 ± 300 kg d-1, respectively. Estimated blubber depths resulting from these food intakes were comparable to field data obtained from whaling data. Sensitivity analysis indicated food intake, from all parameters, as having the highest impact on the percent change in ending mass from a simulation. These food intake estimates are similar to those found in a previous study and fall within the range of food intake per body mass observed in other species of cetaceans. Though thermoregulation can be a factor in some cetaceans, it appears not to be an additional cost for gray whales as the present model's predicted lower critical temperatures for the whales (TLC) were below ambient temperatures. With temperatures increasing in the Bering Sea, the main prey of gray whales, ampeliscid amphipods, could be adversely affected, possibly resulting in increased food shortages leading to a surge in gray whale strandings.

Since its inception in 1995, more than 200 disputes have been raised under the WTO Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU). In spite of the obvious numerical success of the DS system of the WTO, in practice several shortcomings call for institutional and/or procedural change. This analysis deals with the economic aspects of the DS system. First, it turns out that the WTO DS system seems to be "biased". The larger and richer trading nations (USA, EU) are the main users of this system, either because of the larger involvement in world trade, or because the LDCs simply lack the legal resources. Second, in taking advantage of recent theoretical explanations of the WTO system in general (trade talks) and the DS system in particular (aberrations from WTO compliance can lead to trade wars) one can theoretically derive the relative robust result concerning the present practice of the WTO DS system: retaliation with tariffs is ineffective, distorts allocation and is difficult to control. This is also demonstrated in an CGE model analysis for the most popular disputes between the EU and the USA: the Hormones, the Bananas and the FSC cases. The major conclusion of our economic evaluation is that the DS system of retaliation should be changed towards a transfer-like retaliation system. (author's abstract) / Series: EI Working Papers / Europainstitut

The eastward enlargement of the European Union will be the fifth enlargement since establishing the European Community in 1957. This paper gives an overview of the most recent undertakings to estimate the costs and benefits of EU enlargement in the framework of model analysis. This field of research is relatively young. Therefore only a few model simulations have been made so far. They can be classified into world models covering several world regions, and in single country models. In both cases, one finds computable general equilibrium - CGE - models as well as macro models. The major findings of world models are that the CE-ECs will be the winners whereas the EU incumbents can expect only small gains from enlargement. Taking into account the costs of enlargement the big question, is how the int e-gration gains are distributed among EU incumbents. As a rule, those countries will benefit the most which have already strong trade relations with the CEECs. In the case of the single country models, Austria is one of those countries with the longest tradition in making model simulations in the case of enlargement. A comparison of CGE model approaches with macro model simulations for Austria shows that the benefits of EU enlargement may be lower than those of the opening-up of Eastern Europe since 1989. (author's abstract) / Series: EI Working Papers / Europainstitut

EU's 2007 enlargement by Bulgaria and Romania is evaluated by applying a simple macroeconomic integration model able to encompass as many of the theoretically predicted integration effects possible. The direct integration effects of Bulgaria and Romania spill-over to EU15, including Austria and the 10 new member states of the 2004 EU enlargement. The pattern of the integration effects is qualitatively similar to those of EU's 2004 enlargement by 10 new member states. Bulgaria and Romania gain much more from EU accession than the incumbents in the proportion of 20:1. In the medium-run up to 2020, Bulgaria and Romania can expect a sizable overall integration gain, amounting to additional ½ percentage point real GDP growth per annum. Within the incumbent EU member states Austria will gain somewhat more (+0.05%) than the average of EU15 (+0.02%) and the 10 new EU member states (+0.01%), which joined the EU in 2004. (author's abstract) / Series: EI Working Papers / Europainstitut

Negative impacts from intensifying agriculture have generated concerns that pollinator-dependent crop species, such as courgette Cucurbita pepo L., may be experiencing a pollination deficit. This thesis explores the extent to which pollination influences fruit set; how pollination could be improved; and how in doing so growers’ profits and agricultural resilience could increase, using UK field-grown courgettes as a model system. Inspired by evidence of parthenocarpy (fruit set in the absence of fertilisation) in courgette, a systematic review showed extensive use of parthenocarpy to circumvent the need for pollination in other ‘pollinator-dependent’ crop species across the globe. Nonetheless, pollination significantly increased yield and pollinators were abundant enough to fulfil the pollination requirements of courgette, which if extrapolated to the rest of the UK, equates to pollinators contributing approximately £2.7 million to annual UK courgette production. Furthermore, wild flowers within fields were shown to be effective at increasing the abundance of bumblebees and solitary bees. Further exploration of the mutualistic relationship between courgettes and pollinators showed that courgette can improve populations of Bombus terrestris (using the Bumble-BEEHAVE model), an important pollinator of courgette. This thesis concludes that pollination is a vital mechanism for ensuring optimal courgette yields and that whilst pollination levels were maximal at study sites, simple management, such as encouraging wild flowers within courgette fields could help to attract pollinators to courgette flowers and support bees’ nutritional requirements beyond the extensive, yet transient, resource provided by courgette. Understanding a crop’s requirement for pollinators can also aid growers in their decision making about what varieties and sites should be used which could increase their agricultural resilience and further their economic advantage. Further work is needed to understand how other environmental factors interact with pollination to influence fruit set so that growers can prioritise key regulating services in their management for optimal crop yields.

I händelse av ett radioaktivt utsläpp är det viktigt att ha bra beredskap med skyddsåtgärder som bidrarmed det bästa skyddet för den utsatta delen av befolkningen. Direkt efter ett utsläpp utgör exponering viainandning det största problemet eftersom partiklar och gaser ännu inte hunnit deponerats på mark, imoln och så vidare. Byggnader bidrar med ett skydd mot inhalation eftersom luften utanför och inutibostaden byts ut relativt långsamt. Hur stor del av föroreningen som tar sig in till inomhusluften och hurlång tid detta tar är viktig information för att avgöra om befolkningen är tillräckligt skyddade inutibyggnader eller om evakuering bör ske. I detta arbete har kunskap från befintlig litteratur samtmodellering använts för att beskriva generella förhållanden med vilka en förorening kan ta sig in i och utur en byggnad. Differentialekvationer med huvudprocesser och ingående parametrar har studerats för attge en uppfattning om vilket skydd en byggnad kan ge mot inhalation av partiklar och gaser i ettradioaktivt moln. Olika typer av ventilationssystem med eller utan tillhörande partikelfilter diskuteras ochinhalationsdos för olika åldersklasser och aktivitetsnivåer undersöks.Genom att jämföra mängd förorening i luften utanför mot inuti en byggnad talar man om byggnadensskyddskoefficient. De tre huvudprocesser som styr transporten är ventilation, penetration samtdeponering. Ventilationen uppkommer av luftutbytet mellan inomhus‐ och utomhusluften. Ventilationenstyrs antingen mekaniskt eller naturligt. Penetrationen beskriver hur stor andel av partiklarna ellergaserna som tar sig in över byggnadens fasad och deponeringen hur partiklar och gaser tenderar attfastna på de ytor de passerar under transporten. Deponeringen sker även på samtliga ytor inutibyggnaden. Efter att ämnen deponerats kan de resuspendera och åter komma upp till luften vilketmöjliggör för inandning innan de åter kan deponera på tillgängliga ytor. Deponeringen ses som en sänkamedan resuspensionen fungerar som en källa för inomhuskoncentrationen.En av de faktorer som påverkar skyddskoefficienten till störst del är partikeldiametern eftersomdeponerings‐ och penetrationsprocessen är starkt storleksberoende. Stora och små partiklar deponeraslättare och kvar finns den så kallade mellanfraktionen, 0,2‐1 μm i diameter, som håller sig i luften längsttid. Gaser rör sig lätt in och ut ur byggnaden och hindras inte av partikelfilter. Däremot finns särskildafilter att installera som hindrar gaser att ta sig in, exempelvis kolfilter. Sönderfallshastigheten hos de olikaradionukliderna påverkar även skyddsfaktorn. Då ämnena sönderfaller minskar koncentrationen i luften,sönderfallet är då en sänka för koncentrationen inomhus. Ventilationshastigheten har en viss påverkan påskyddskoefficienten. En ökad ventilationshastighet leder till att koncentrationen inomhus kommer att gåmot penetrationsfaktorn. Detta gäller om ventilationshastigheten kan antas vara mycket större ändepositionshastigheten. Ventilationssystem utrustade med partikelfilter kan hålla en stor del avföroreningen utanför byggnaden. Partikelfiltren har olika effektivitet och klassificeras som grov‐, mediumsamtfinfilter. En hög filtereffektivitet har stor påverkan på skyddskoefficienten. Ett filter skall däremotses som en färskvara. De kräver underhåll och bör bytas ut i tid för att kunna fungera som de ska.Inhalationsdosen beror av partikelstorlek eftersom deponeringen som sker i luftvägarna fungerar påliknande sätt som i transporten in och ut ur byggnaden. Mellanfraktionen har tendens att tränga djupt nedi lungorna efter inandning. Effekten från inhalation beror på en individs ålder, storlek och fysisk aktivitet. / In case of a radioactive release, it is important to have good preparedness with the right actions to contribute the best protection for the vulnerable section of the population. Immediately after a release theexposure through inhalation will be the biggest problem, since particles and gases have not beendeposited on land, clouds and so on. Buildings contribute to protection against inhalation. The reason forthis is that the air outside and inside the dwelling is changed relatively slowly. How much of the pollutionthat enter the indoor air and how long time it takes is important information to determine if thepopulation is sufficiently protected inside buildings or if evacuation is needed. In this work knowledgefrom existing literature and modelling has been used to describe general conditions with which apollutant moves in and out of a building. Differential equations with main processes and parameters havebeen studied to give a estimation as to the protection a building can provide against exposure throughinhalation of particles and gases in a radioactive cloud. Different types of ventilation systems, with orwithout associated particle filter are discussed and inhalation dose for different age groups and activitylevels are examined.A buildings protection coefficient is defined by comparing the amount of pollution in the air outside withthe air inside a building. The three main processes that control the transport of the pollution in and outfrom a building are ventilation, penetration and deposition. Ventilation arises of air exchange betweenindoor and outdoor air. Ventilation is controlled either mechanically or naturally. Penetration describesthe proportion of the particles or gases that enter trough the buildings shell. Deposition of particles andgases accurse due to the fact that they tend to stick to the surfaces they pass in transit. The deposition alsooccurs on all surfaces inside the building. After the particles and gases have become deposited, they mayre‐suspend and come back up into the air permitting inhalation before they once more deposit onavailable surfaces. The deposit is seen as a sink while re‐suspension acts as a source for indoor airconcentration.One of the factors that have a large impact of a buildings protection factor is the particle diameter, due tothe deposition and penetration process strongly dependent on particles size. Large and small particlesdeposited easier and the remaining fraction, the midfraction (0.2 to 1 micron in diameter), remains. Thisfraction will stay in the air longer since the deposition process does not affect it strongly. Gases moveeasily in and out of the building and are not prevented by the particle filter. However, there are specialfilters to install that prevent gases to penetrate, such as carbon filters. The rate of decay of the variousradionuclides also affects the protection factor. When nuclides decay the concentration in the airdecreases, the decay is then a sink of the concentration indoors. Ventilation rate has a certain influence onprotection coefficient. An increased ventilation rate leads to the concentration inside approaching thepenetration factor; this is applied if the ventilation rate can be assumed to be much higher than thedeposit rate. Ventilation system equipped with a particle filter can keep a large part of the pollutantoutside the building. Particle filters have different efficiency and are classified as coarse, medium and finefilter. High filter efficiency has a major impact on the protection coefficient. For a filter to functionproperly it demands maintenance and should be replaced in time.Inhalation dose depends on the particle size, since the deposition process affected in respiratory functionis similar to the transport in and out of a building. The midfraction tends to penetrate deep into the lungsafter inhalation. The effect of inhalation is due to an individual's age, size, and physical activity.

This paper tests for the Euro zone the hypothesis put forward by Sapir and Sekkat (1999) that synchronizing elections might improve welfare. After identifying a political budget cycle in the Euro zone we build a politico-macroeconomic model and simulate the effects of adopting a common election day in the 12 Euro zone member states. The results support most of the theoretical predictions by Sapir-Sekkat: (i) Synchronizing the elections could enhance GDP growth, reduce unemployment, but leads to increased inflation and in some countries to a deterioration of the budget; higher inflation forces ECB to monetary restrictions. (ii) If the synchronization happens asymmetrically - either only in the large or only in the small Euro zone countries - the result depends on the size of the spillovers. (iii) As anticipated in Sapir -Sekkat a common election day is a further step towards the desired "European business cycle", however, at the cost of increasing its amplitude. Harmonizing elections is another method of policy coordination. Whether this leads to higher welfare is a matter of weighting the different macroeconomic outcomes and it also depends on the model applied. (author's abstract) / Series: EI Working Papers / Europainstitut

<p>Northern peatlands (>45°N) mostly initiated during the Holocene and have been a large C sink to the atmosphere. Northern peatland formation prefers wet and cold condition where the productivity persistently exceeds decomposition and thereby C accumulates. As the northern high latitude region is likely to be warmer in the future, whether northern peatlands will continue being C sinks or switch to C sources is uncertain. To address this issue, I revise and apply a process-based model designed for describing peatland biogeochemical processes, Peatland Terrestrial Ecosystem Model (PTEM), to simulate the C dynamics at both site and regional level, from 15 ka BP-2300. For the site-level simulation, PTEM 1.0 is substantially revised into PTEM 2.0 in terms of peat accumulation process, plant functional types, productivity and decomposition, and soil thermal properties. A simulation from peat initiation to 2300 is conducted for three northern peatland sites. I found PTEM 2.0 can effectively capture the historical C accumulation progress, when compared with the observation. The future simulation indicates northern peatlands have reduced C sink capacity or switch to a C source under N insufficiency and water table deepening. </p> <p>Afterwards, a historical pan-Arctic simulation during 15ka BP-1990 is conducted. PTEM 2.0 is revised into PTEM 2.1 by adding spatially-explicit run-on and run off processes. The spatially-explicit peat initiation dataset is derived from neural network approach and a spatially-explicit peat expansion trend is established on top of it. My estimated pan-Arctic peatland C storage is 396-421 Pg C with the long-term C accumulation rate (CAR) of 22.9 g C∙m-2 yr-1. The simulated spatial distribution of peat C and the temporal pattern of CAR both agree with literature values. I analyzed northern peatlands’ response to historical climate change since 0.5 ka BP and found decreased CAR in the warmer non-permafrost and permafrost-thaw region, while the opposite was found in the colder permafrost region. The results indicate warmer southern peatlands will first switch to a C source under warming while more northern peatlands will become larger sinks. </p> <p>Based on the result of historical simulation, a future simulation is conducted for 1990-2300 with peatland expansion/shrinkage considered. PTEM 2.1 is revised into PTEM 2.2 such that the water table depth, run-on and run-off are estimated from a TOPMODEL approach. In the 21st century, northern peatlands are projected to be a C source of 1.2-13.3 Pg C under five out of six climate scenarios. During 2100-2300, northern peatlands under all scenarios are a C source under all climate scenarios. Northern peatlands switch to C sources due to deepening water table depth, insufficient N availability, and plant functional type shift. I found that northern peatlands remain as a C sink until a mean pan-Arctic peatlands annual temperature reaches -2.09 - -2.89°C. This study predicts a northern peatland sink to a source shift around 2050, earlier than previous estimates of after 2100, and emphasizes the vulnerability of northern peatlands to climate change. </p>

A phantom is haunting the EU enlargement process. Some fear that the Balassa-Samuelson (B-S) effect might be a major obstacle for the Central and Eastern European countries (CEEC) to become members of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). A review of the relevant literature reveals that most estimations of the B-S effect in the EU acceding countries are flawed by one kind or the other. Either they do not estimate correctly the B-S propositions, or if they measure it they use a variety of measures for the variables needed. Additionally, the B-S effect is only a special case of a broader approach towards equilibrium real exchange rates. Lastly the B-S effect is studied in a CGE multi-country world in order to detect possible spillover effects. After describing the "official" road map towards the EMU, it is concluded that the uncertainties in measuring the B-S are much too high in order to see in it (alone) a major hindrance for the CEEC to become early members of the EMU. Moreover, real exchange rate appreciations that reflect productivity gains in the tradable sector are an equilibrium phenomenon and do not require a policy response. They are a natural phenomena in catching-up countries like the CEEC. Furthermore, the official doctrine for entering the EMU by the EU/ECB only interdicts depreciations but not appreciations for potential EMU members. (author's abstract) / Series: EI Working Papers / Europainstitut

Abstract In this work an experimental study of size varied, neutral, and free metal clusters using synchrotron radiation excited photoelectron spectroscopy was performed. The combined core-level and valence photoelectron spectroscopic investigation indicates metallic properties for nanoscale Rb, K, Sn, and Bi clusters. In the case of Sn the experimental results suggest a metal-to-insulator transition occurring at the studied size range. In addition to the experimental results the technical implementation of the cluster production set-up is presented and jellium-model-based simulations are compared with the experimental results of the Rb and K clusters.