Ethanol is a renewable energy source that could decrease society's dependence on fossil fuels, while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Producing ethanol on a small scale on South African farms could provide farmers with the capability of increasing their profits by reducing their input cost. Ethanol can be directly used as fuel and could supply alternative products to their market. This study evaluated the feasibility of using an ammonia/water hybrid heat pump in the ethanol production process. A model for the material and energy balance of a small scale ethanol plant was simulated, to obtain the requirements to which the hybrid heat pump had to adhere. A two stage hybrid heat pump (TSHHP) was then modelled. It is capable of operating at high temperatures and it has high temperature lift capabilities, which are suitable in the production of ethanol. The results from the model demonstrated that the TSHHP could operate at an average temperature lift of 106°C with a maximum temperature of heat delivery as high as 142°C and cooling as low as 9°C. Simultaneous heating and cooling demand in the ethanol production process can be met with the TSHHP. For the TSHHP model, 120 kW of heating and 65 kW of cooling is supplied while maintaining a COP of 2.1. The model accuracy was also verified against another simulation program. Implementation of the TSHHP into the ethanol plant was then discussed, as well as methods to optimize production by energy management. When compared to conventional heating and cooling systems, it was found that the TSHHP provides a more cost effective and energy efficient way of producing ethanol. The economic evaluation demonstrated that the installation cost of the TSHHP would only be 63% of the price of a conventional system. The main advantage is that the TSHHP uses only 38% of the energy used in a conventional system. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Mechanical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Ethanol is a renewable energy source that could decrease society's dependence on fossil fuels, while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Producing ethanol on a small scale on South African farms could provide farmers with the capability of increasing their profits by reducing their input cost. Ethanol can be directly used as fuel and could supply alternative products to their market. This study evaluated the feasibility of using an ammonia/water hybrid heat pump in the ethanol production process. A model for the material and energy balance of a small scale ethanol plant was simulated, to obtain the requirements to which the hybrid heat pump had to adhere. A two stage hybrid heat pump (TSHHP) was then modelled. It is capable of operating at high temperatures and it has high temperature lift capabilities, which are suitable in the production of ethanol. The results from the model demonstrated that the TSHHP could operate at an average temperature lift of 106°C with a maximum temperature of heat delivery as high as 142°C and cooling as low as 9°C. Simultaneous heating and cooling demand in the ethanol production process can be met with the TSHHP. For the TSHHP model, 120 kW of heating and 65 kW of cooling is supplied while maintaining a COP of 2.1. The model accuracy was also verified against another simulation program. Implementation of the TSHHP into the ethanol plant was then discussed, as well as methods to optimize production by energy management. When compared to conventional heating and cooling systems, it was found that the TSHHP provides a more cost effective and energy efficient way of producing ethanol. The economic evaluation demonstrated that the installation cost of the TSHHP would only be 63% of the price of a conventional system. The main advantage is that the TSHHP uses only 38% of the energy used in a conventional system. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Mechanical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Master of Agribusiness / Department of Agricultural Economics / Allen M. Featherstone / The cost of energy is a major concern for the United States and its citizens. With domestic demand at all time highs, the need for renewable fuels has become a key in reducing our countries reliance on imported energy. It is important for the U.S. to examine the feasibility of producing its own energy from renewable resources that can be grown domestically. Along with the potential financial gains from renewable fuels, the ability to control the supply of energy for the U.S. is also very important. With the amount of oil imported by the U.S., the ability to produce more of our nations needs and not be forced to rely on other countries could be important for our country moving forward. With the political unrest in many oil producing areas, the security of energy independence is a goal for the U.S. This study uses United States Department of Agriculture, Pro Exporter, Advance Trading, and other statistical sources to analyze the economic feasibility of an ethanol plant near Des Moines, IA. It looks at the available supply of corn in the area as well as the production of ethanol and distillers grains. An increase in the price of imported oil does not necessarily results in an economically viable ethanol plant. Many variables go into the economic viability of an ethanol plant and consumers will still buy the low cost good, and that may be imported energy. Some of these variables affecting economic viability include corn price and availability, denaturant price, natural gas price, ethanol demand and distillers grains demand. With the push for cleaner air and a cleaner environment, ethanol is also used as a gasoline additive to reduce emissions. As more states regulate a higher inclusion rate of ethanol, this will continue to create greater demand. A 100 million gallon ethanol plant is an economically viable investment in the Des Moines area, but when looking at the sensitivity tests, the better investment option if investors want to enter the ethanol industry, is to buy an existing ethanol plant.

Universidade Federal do Cearà / The present work aimed at the production of lignosulfonate, based in the lignin extracted from sugarcane bagasse-cane for using in phenolic resins. The extraction of lignin was carried out using the acetosolv process, which was optimised with a central composite design 22 to evaluate the effects of reaction time and temperature on the extraction yield, weight-average (M ̅w) and number-average (M ̅n) molecular weights, relative content of total hydroxyl, phenolic hydroxyl and methoxyl groups. The lignins obtained under conditions that maximized the extraction yield and showed better structural and thermal characteristics were sulfonated to obtain the lignosulfonates. The structural and thermal characteristics of the lignins and lignosulfonates were determined by FT-IR, GPC, 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR, DSC and TGA. The results show that the best extraction yield (64.5%) was obtained with 95% (w/w) of acetic acid, the addition of 0.1% HCl, at a temperature of 187 ÂC and reaction time of 40 min. However, with the same concentration of acetic acid and reaction time of 15 min at 187 ÂC, the extraction yield decreased to 55.6%  4.5%, without significant reduction. Furthermore, the increase in temperature of 187 ÂC to 205 ÂC was not enough to cause a significant increase in the relative content of hydroxyls and reduction of the relative content of methoxyl. These results show that the most appropriate conditions for adequate extraction of lignin for application in resins are: 95% (w/w) of acetic acid, addition of 0.1% of HCl, temperature of 187 ÂC and reaction time of 15 min. The acetosolv lignins showed p-hidroxifenila units as major constituent, higher thermal stability and higher purity than the commercial Kraft lignin. The glass transition temperature of the Kraft lignins was lower than that of the acetosolv lignin. This is due to the hydrophilic character and the presence of carbohydrates in the Kraft lignin. The lignosulfonates obtained in this study showed structural characteristics suitable for application in phenolic resins, because they showed high reactivity due to the greater presence of p-hidroxifenila units as major constituent, low molecular weights (40234878 g/mol), greater stability and greater purity compared to commercial sodium lignosulfonate. Therefore, lignosulfonates obtained in this work are more suitable for use in phenolic resins than commercial sodium lignosulfonate used for comparison. / O presente trabalho teve por objetivo a produÃÃo de lignossulfonato, a partir da lignina extraÃda do bagaÃo da cana-de-aÃÃcar para aplicaÃÃo em resinas fenÃlicas. Foi realizada a otimizaÃÃo da extraÃÃo da lignina do bagaÃo de cana-de-aÃÃcar utilizando o processo acetosolv. Para tanto, empregou-se um delineamento composto central 22 para analisar os efeitos do tempo de reaÃÃo e da temperatura no rendimento de extraÃÃo, massa molar ponderal mÃdia, massa molar numÃrica mÃdia, e conteÃdo relativo de hidroxilas totais, hidroxilas fenÃlicas e metoxilas. As ligninas obtidas nas condiÃÃes que maximizaram o rendimento de extraÃÃo e que mostraram melhores caracterÃsticas estruturais e tÃrmicas foram sulfonadas para obtenÃÃo dos lignossulfonatos. As caracterÃsticas estruturais e tÃrmicas das ligninas e dos lignossulfonatos foram determinadas por FT-IR, GPC, RMN-1H e 13C, TGA e DSC. Os resultados mostram que o melhor rendimento de extraÃÃo (64,5 % 4,2%) foi obtido com 95% (m/m) de Ãcido acÃtico, adiÃÃo de 0,1% de HCl, a uma temperatura de 187 C e tempo de reaÃÃo de 40 min. No entanto, com a mesma concentraÃÃo de soluÃÃo de Ãcido acÃtico e com tempo de reaÃÃo de 15 min a 187ÂC, o rendimento de extraÃÃo diminuiu para 55,6%  4,5%, nÃo sendo significativa esta reduÃÃo. AlÃm disto, a elevaÃÃo da temperatura de 187ÂC para 205ÂC nÃo foi suficiente para causar um aumento significativo no conteÃdo relativo de hidroxilas e reduÃÃo do conteÃdo relativo de metoxila. Esses resultados mostram que as condiÃÃes mais adequadas para extraÃÃo da lignina a ser aplicada em resinas sÃo: 95% (m/m) de Ãcido acÃtico, adiÃÃo de 0,1% de HCl, temperatura de 187 C e tempo de reaÃÃo de 15 min. As ligninas acetosolv apresentaram unidades p-hidroxifenila como constituinte majoritÃrio, maior estabilidade tÃrmica e maior pureza em relaÃÃo à lignina Kraft comercial. A temperatura de transiÃÃo vÃtrea da lignina Kraft foi menor do que à das ligninas acetosolv, devido à sua caracterÃstica hidrofÃlica e à presenÃa de carboidratos na lignina Kraft. Os lignossulfonatos obtidos no presente trabalho apresentaram caracterÃsticas estruturais adequadas para aplicaÃÃo em resinas fenÃlicas, pois mostraram alta reatividade devido a maior presenÃa de unidades p-hidroxifenila como constituinte majoritÃrio, baixas massas molares (4023 a 4878 g/mol), maior estabilidade e uma maior pureza em relaÃÃo ao lignossulfonato de sÃdio comercial. Portanto, os lignossulfonatos obtidos no presente trabalho sÃo mais adequados para aplicaÃÃo em resinas fenÃlicas do que o lignossulfonato de sÃdio comercial utilizado no presente trabalho.