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Is the application of international law unjust in prominent case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union? In answering this question the thesis explains that Justice comprises both legal certainty, which seeks clear rules to govern future conduct, and [j]ustice, which seeks the correct outcome in an individual case. There is a frequent tension between these aims. Moreover, there is not an accepted model of Justice which resolves how to balance legal certainty and justice. Any loss in one aspect may be justified by a gain in the other. On this basis the analysis of legal certainty and justice is divided in the thesis. Legal certainty can be measured objectively, but the appropriate level of legal certainty which any legal system should achieve is contested. It is argued that legal certainty in internal case law - case law not applying international law - is the appropriate measure of legal certainty in external case law - case law applying international treaty and customary international law. This is implicit in scholarship and has been expressly approved by the Court itself. The thesis will identify that external case law is les certain than internal case law. [j]ustice cannot be measured objectively and is contested in its substantive or 'thick' form. However, formal, or 'thin' justice, which is encapsulated in the obligation to treat like cases alike and unalike cases unalike to the extent of their unalikeness, is widely accepted. Accordingly, the thesis compares internal case law, which reveals strong and consistent conceptions of justice across EU law, to external case law. It identifies differing justice conceptions in external as copared to internal case law. Based on a 'thin' model of justice these justice modifications must be accounted for based on the context of applying international law; the extent of the unalikeness. It will be identified that unalikeness in the context of applying international law cannot account for the justice modifications in external case law and a fortiori the lower levels of legal certainty. Accordingly, this thesis endeavours to show that the application of international law in prominent case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union in unjust.

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The empirical focus of this research comprises the UK television news battles between Greenpeace (a highly media-aware International Non-Governmental Organisation (INGO)), and the oil company Shell (a multinational corporation (MNC)). Specifically, two such media battles are examined, both receiving international attention and intense media publicity during 1995: - The battle between Royal Dutch/Shell, particularly, its subsidiary Shell-UK, and Greenpeace over the deep-sea disposal of the Brent Spar oil platform; - The battle between Royal Dutch/Shell's Nigerian subsidiary, the Shell Petroleum Development Corporation (SPDC) (hereafter referred to as Shell-Nigeria), and Greenpeace (amongst others) over environmental pollution in Ogoniland, Nigeria. These two battles were chosen mainly because they share the same main protagonists - Greenpeace and Shell - providing rich material for a number of interesting questions regarding media agenda-building.

<p> A group of early modern German prints related to relic displays, reliquaries, and collecting, though explored by Heinrich Otte in the mid-1800s, has been ignored in recent art historical literature. Though references to the various prints appear in texts on social, cultural, and religious history, a more in-depth consideration of the works is warranted. This thesis, as a preliminary step, categorizes the prints into two sub-groups, narrative and index. It further utilizes the intriguing relationships embodied in the prints to trace societal and cultural changes, including the rise of event reporting, collecting and organization of knowledge, and changes in religious practices.</p>

<p> Nations sharing similar historical, linguistic, and social backgrounds tend to cluster around the same cultural values systems. However, changing socioenvironmental conditions drive cultural values systems to change over time. This study compared changing cultural values in Poland in the postcommunist era with values in the Czech Republic and Slovenia, using factorial ANOVA of published data from the European Values Survey and World Values Survey. The hypotheses were: (a) cultural values in Poland have moved from traditionalist values toward secularism; (b) Poland's rate of cultural values movement was more moderate than either the Czech Republic or Slovenia; and (c) the higher degree of religiousness in Poland mirrored the slower rate of movement toward secularism. The study participants were 20,038 adults from the Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovenia. Findings showed 10 of 19 cultural values in Poland showed moderate movement toward secularism, confirming that traditional cultural values in Poland had decreased. However, the findings also showed cultural migration in Poland preserved strong traditional family and religious values despite the influence of far reaching social, economic, and political changes. This study revealed two important points: (a) as cultural values within groups of nations change, cultural values in similar clusters of nations tend to move in the same direction, and (b) deeply held traditional values tend to preserve the differentiation between nations, even as process of cultural values change continues.</p>

European integration has been the zeitgeist of Western European politics since the end of the Second World War. Governments and parties not committed to the project have been unable to avoid the issue in the wake of ongoing integration. It has generated unprecedented inter- and intra-party tensions in certain member states due to the passions aroused by the threat that European integration poses to national sovereignty. This study attempts to fill the gap in research on the impact of 'ever closer union' on party systems by examining those of Denmark and the United Kingdom, which are widely recognised as the European Unions two most "Eurosceptical" members. The approach has been through the medium of personal interviews with committed political actors across the party spectrum in both countries, supported by other primary and secondary evidence. The aim was to assess whether -or not European integration had generated permanent party system change commensurate with the sound and fury the issue had provoked on the national stage. A second aim was to show how the mapping of such changes might allow the behaviour of other parties and party systems to be predicted as European integration continues. The research concludes that European integration has severely tested party and party system cohesion, but individual parties and their systems have proved remarkably adaptable and resilient in absorbing the issue. Furthermore, both inter- and intra-party divisions declined significantly through the 1980s and 1990s and by 2001, 'Europeanisation' had extended across both party systems that embraced all parties apart from those on the far right and far left in Denmark and the growing Eurosceptic wing of the British Conservative Party. An overwhelming consensus exists on the efficacy of membership of the European Union, but tensions remain on the desirability of finiher integration. Also, attitudes to membership and plans for future integration break along party lines in the two countries more clearly than was the case when they became members in 1973. This situation is likely to continue as integration deepens, widening cleavages between parties rather than within them, but posing little threat to the party systems themselves.

<p> Authors often explore the details of identity and body politics through their writing. Czech author Milan Kundera&rsquo;s novel <i>The Unbearable Lightness of Being</i> deals heavily with the marginalized and oppressed body, considering how such bodies function, how they perceive themselves, how they are perceived by others, and how such bodies are, by nature, a defiance of an established hegemony. The novel considers the exiled body and how such exile can deliver freedom, cause further marginalization, or craft an ambivalent mixture of the two. The oppressed and marginalized body, as understood through literature, acts not just as a mirror of society but also as an avenue for navigating a subject as dense as identity and body politics.</p><p>

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Abstract not available.