It is widely accepted in the literature that adverse experiences in childhood, such as abuse and emotional invalidation, pose a major risk factor for the development of psychopathology later in life. What is less known, however, is what processes mediate these associations. This study investigated whether psychological inflexibility – that is, cognitive fusion and experiential avoidance - play a role in mediating these relationships. Although abuse and experiential avoidance have featured prominently in the literature, emotional invalidation and cognitive fusion have been comparatively neglected. 518 adults currently experiencing self-reported psychological distress were recruited from online mental health support forums. They completed questionnaires measuring experiences of abuse and maternal/paternal emotional invalidation in childhood and current levels of cognitive fusion, experiential avoidance and psychopathology in an online survey. Given the interpersonal nature of the childhood experiences, and the impact these may have on attachment relationships, participants were also asked to complete a measure of adult attachment. Regression and path analyses indicated that whilst childhood abuse had a direct impact on adult psychopathology, experiences of maternal and paternal emotional invalidation had indirect relationships with psychopathology via cognitive fusion and experiential avoidance. In terms of predicting current levels of psychopathology, cognitive fusion made the most significant contribution, both directly, and indirectly via experiential avoidance. No reliable predictive relationships were observed between adult attachment and any other variable. The results add novel findings to the literature regarding the role of childhood emotional invalidation and cognitive fusion in the development and/or maintenance of distress. They suggest that clinical interventions aimed at cognitive defusion may be of particular benefit to people currently experiencing psychological distress and, perhaps, those with a history of emotional invalidation. However, the cross-sectional nature of this study limits the causal conclusions that can be made and future research should consider the use of longitudinal designs to extend these findings.

Emerging adulthood is a term coined to recognize 18 to 25 year-olds who engage in self-exploration while not yet fully identifying as adults. Many emerging adult college students experience stress, anxiety, and depression. Although many colleges provide affordable and available mental health resources for students, many students who need help appear to not utilize these services. Gaining greater understanding of underlying processes that influence psychological treatment-seeking behavior is imperative. The current study sought to explore the role experiential avoidance (EA) plays as a treatment-seeking barrier in the context of emerging adulthood. Undergraduate students completed online measures of emerging adulthood dimensions, psychological symptoms, EA, self-stigma of, perceived public stigma of, intentions to, and attitudes and beliefs towards seeking treatment, treatment seeking behavior, and a demographics questionnaire. Binomial hierarchical logistic regressions and correlational analyses examined the relationship of EA and treatment-seeking behaviors, accounting for known barriers and emerging adult characteristics. After controlling for demographic variables, results indicated that EA was significantly positively correlated with self-stigma (r = .187), p < .001), perceived public stigma (r = .178, p < .001), intentions (r - .207, p < .001), psychological symptoms (r = .713, p < .001), and attitudes and beliefs (r = .009, p = .003). These and other findings are discussed further, along with the study limitations and implications, as well as possible future directions for work in this area.

Background Dementia has been a global priority for over a decade, with a recognition that it presents a growing challenge for all those directly affected, as well as for health and social care services. For those who are caring for a relative at home, carer burden has been found to be predictive of physical and mental health problems, and can impact on the decision to place a relative in fulltime residential care. Gaining a fuller understanding of factors that impact on caregiver burden may help inform the development of effective interventions for this population. This thesis comprises a systematic review of the literature on individual behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) and their impact on carer burden, a cross-sectional study of one hundred and ten dementia caregivers, exploring the impact of executive functioning deficits, and potential mediating mechanisms, on carer burden and positive gain, and a development and feasibility study of an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) group intervention for dementia caregivers. Systematic Review Twenty-one studies measured the association between at least one individual symptom, or symptom cluster, and carer burden, and are included in the review. All studies found at least one symptom to be significantly associated with burden. However, due to the heterogeneity of studies in this field, there was insufficient evidence to establish whether any symptoms are more closely associated than others. Issues regarding the conceptualisation of burden and measurement of BPSD are highlighted and suggestions for addressing this in future studies proposed. Method One hundred and ten dementia caregivers completed five self-report questionnaires as part of a cross-sectional design, aiming to explore the role of executive functioning deficits, dementia management strategies and experiential avoidance in 2 the development of carer burden and positive gain. Drawing on these findings, a group intervention, based on ACT, was developed and delivered to twenty-three dementia caregivers. Data on attendance, attrition and qualitative feedback was collected as an indication of acceptability, and a quasi-experimental design, involving four pre, post and follow-up measures was employed to provide preliminary data on effectiveness. The measures used in both studies were the Dysexecutive Questionnaire (DEX) (study 1 only), Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI), Positive Aspects of Caregiving Questionnaire (PAC), Dementia Management Strategies Scale (DMSS) and Experiential Avoidance in Caregiving Questionnaire (EACQ). Results & Conclusions In study one, executive functioning deficits were found to account for most variance in burden. The use of negative management strategies and Active Avoidant Behaviour (a subscale of the EACQ), were also associated with higher levels of burden, while positive management strategies were associated with positive gain. The results suggest that management strategies and experiential avoidance could be potential mediating mechanisms in the development of carer burden, and so were targeted in the ACT group intervention in study two. Findings from study two indicate that the group intervention was feasible and acceptable to caregivers, with subjective change reported in understanding of behavioural changes in the care-recipient, ability to handle negative emotions and valued living. Suggestions are made regarding alternative outcome measures for future studies in order to capture participants’ experience more fully, as there was little statistically significant change in this study. Suggestions are also made regarding future directions for the intervention.

The aim of this thesis was to examine the concept of self-compassion in relation to psychopathology with mediating effects of experiential avoidance and metacognition in a Turkish university student sample. Self-Compassion which is a recently formulated promising concept in western psychology consists of three components: self-kindness, common humanity and mindfulness. In addition to self-compassion, recent psychological concepts of cognitive (metacognition) and behavioral (experiential avoidance) perspectives were investigated through models. In this thesis, the negative relationship between self-compassion and psychopathology (depression and anxiety) with mediating effects of experiential avoidance and metacognition was tested. Prior to main analyses, psychometric properties of the scales measuring self-compassion and experiential avoidance were tested. Then, three different models were tested with structural equation modeling (SEM). In these analyses, the proposed full mediation models were compared to empirically alternative models. Self-compassion was found to be significantly and negatively related to both depression, and anxiety. In the first model experiential avoidance fully mediated the relationship between self-compassion and psychopathology. Moreover, metacognitive factors and metacognition as a whole concept mediated the relation between self-compassion and psychopathology. However, they were not as powerful as experiential avoidance. Results of this thesis supported the literature about empowering effect of self-compassion against psychopathology. Furthermore, relationships were mediated by concepts of both modern cognitive and behavior therapies. However, self-compassion, as a fundamental element of psychotherapy, was the focus of this thesis. Findings of the study were discussed in the context of the relevant literature.

Harsh and punitive parenting styles have been historically associated with the development of eating pathology. More recently, early maladaptive schemas and experiential avoidance have also been implicated in disordered eating. Maladaptive schemas are cognitive scripts that are theorized to be learned within maladaptive environments and repeated throughout an individual’s life. Experiential avoidance involves a tendency to avoid negative emotional experiences through maladaptive strategies. Both maladaptive schemas and experiential avoidance have been implicated in the development of many psychological issues, including eating pathology. The current study attempts to bridge these bodies of literature to develop a model in which cognitive and emotional processes relate to perceived maladaptive parenting styles and the development of eating pathology. Two studies are presented within the current dissertation. The first is a survey based quantitative study that assesses the influence of perceived authoritarian parenting style on the development of binge and restrictive eating pathology. This study examines the mediating role of maladaptive schemas and the moderating role of experiential avoidance. Results of the study demonstrate that specific maladaptive schemas (i.e., mistrust/abuse, emotional deprivation, and defectiveness/shame) mediate the relation between perceived authoritarian parenting and restrictive eating, particularly for those participants with higher levels of experiential avoidance. A different set of maladaptive schemas (i.e., defectiveness/shame, subjugation, and insufficient self-control/self-discipline) was found to significantly mediate the relation between perceived authoritarian parenting and binge eating pathology. Within this model however, low levels of experiential avoidance did not mitigate the effects of maladaptive schemas on the development of binge eating. Using a thematically driven exploratory qualitative analysis in the second study, similar themes were observed in a series of interviews, highlighting the influence of parenting style, participant characteristics, and specific food/weight related issues in the development of disordered eating. New and interesting themes not addressed within Study 1 emerged, providing insight relevant to future clinical and theoretical work. The results of both studies emphasize the role of particular cognitive and emotional factors in the development of different forms of eating pathology. Implications for theory and clinical practice are discussed.

This cross-sectional, exploratory study aimed to determine the prevalence and characteristics of self-harming behaviours among a sample of South African university students (N = 603), as well as the relationship between deliberate self-harm (DSH) and symptoms of depression and anxiety. A battery of instruments, including the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and Deliberate Self-Harm Inventory (DSHI) was administered to participants. Data were analysed by means of descriptive statistics, Chi Square tests, t-tests, and logistic regression analyses. The findings suggest high rates of DSH among the sample (46% lifetime prevalence; 36% 12-month prevalence). No significant gender differences were found in the rates of DSH. Participants from the combined Asian and Coloured racial group reported significantly higher rates of DSH than both White and Black participants. Participants aged 20-21 were significantly more likely to report DSH than those in other age groups. Overall, depression scores in the sample fell within the normal range (M = 15.79), while anxiety scores were found to be exceptionally high (state anxiety: M = 46.56; trait anxiety: M = 48.72). The findings suggest that participants with elevated levels of depression are significantly more likely to report DSH. A significant, negative relationship was found between DSH and state anxiety, while a positive yet insignificant relationship was found between DSH and trait anxiety. The findings of this exploratory study partially support the findings of international research investigating the relationship between DSH and depression and anxiety, but warrant further exploration in order to better understand the complexities of these relationships, particularly in the South African context. / Mini-Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / tm2015 / Psychology / MA / Unrestricted

Climate change is one of the biggest threats facing the world, connected to rising oceanlevels, droughts, and other natural disasters. The aim of this study was to explore if and howclimate worry, climate coping and experiential avoidance are connected to climate friendlybehaviour among Swedish adolescents in their third year of upper-secondary school (N=470).A questionnaire was used to measure the factors of interest, which were analysed withcorrelation and mediation analysis. Four main results were found. The first was that climatefriendly behaviour related to climate worry and climate coping in a similar way to howpro-environmental behaviour has done in previous studies. The second finding was thatproblem focused climate coping mediated the relationship between meaning focused climatecoping and climate friendly behaviour. The third result was that distancing was positivelyrelated to experiential avoidance and climate worry in contrast to de-emphasizing which wasonly related negatively to climate friendly behaviour. Lastly the results showed thatexperiential avoidance was related to distancing but not to any other variables. Our findingscontribute to a greater understanding of the field in that they support and extend previousfindings as well as highlight new angles for future research.

The current study examined experiential avoidance (EA) as an explanation for parental overprotectiveness, a behavior often found among parents of anxious children. EA parenting theory posits that parents engage in overprotective behaviors in order to reduce their own anxiety. In order to test the theory, mothers’ electrodermal activity (EDA) and blindly-coded overprotective behaviors were examined when a child with SAD was engaged in a reading performance task. In line with EA theory, it was hypothesized that EDA levels would increase before an overprotective behavior (OB) occurred and decrease afterwards as a result of decrease in anxiety. The sample consisted of mothers with a child diagnosed with SAD (n=5) and mothers with a child with no diagnoses (n=5). Each mother-child dyad participated in an ABAB design protocol consisting of a baseline period, two 10-minute reading tasks, and a recovery period between the two tasks. Although mothers of both groups displayed OBs, mothers of children with SAD displayed OBs more often. In addition, mothers of children with SAD displayed more promotion of avoidance while mothers of normal control children displayed higher frequencies of control over the reading task. The EDA activity that surrounded the first occurrence of any coded OB was examined. Contrary to the hypothesis, all mothers (regardless of child’s anxiety status) displayed similar trends in their EDA data, with levels increasing but then decreasing shortly before an OB behavior occurred, rather than afterwards. However, one mother with an elevated social anxiety score revealed an EDA pattern similar to what was hypothesized. Possible explanations for these alternate findings are discussed and include a multidisciplinary conceptualization. The study’s findings hold theoretical and practical implications, particularly for parent training in the treatment of childhood anxiety disorders. Limitations such as small sample size and directions for future research are discussed.

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