Highly emotionally negative pictures and sexually erotic pictures have been shown to distract human attention during an attentional blink task. The current study examined how participants performed in an attentional blink task that used gender-specific (i.e., bitch and testicles) and gender-neutral taboo words (i.e., bullshit) as distracters. Taboo words elicited an attentional blink at Lag 6 and female taboo words elicited more attentional blinks than male or neutral taboo words. Participants also missed a large number of targets during Lag 2 and Lag 10. There were no gender differences in attentional blink. Participants exhibited greater memory recall for taboo words over filler words. These finding suggest that taboo words affect human attention and are processed for later recall.

The effects of onset interaural time differences (ITD) on lateralization and detection of binaural broadband click trains with alternating and non-alternating ITDs were examined under earphones. Three ITDs were employed: 0 us, or $\pm$ 500 us (right-leading and left-leading). Within each train, ITDs were the same (all-left, all-right, and centered) or alternated between two of the three values. The interclick interval was 2 milliseconds and the train duration was 250 milliseconds. Lateralization has investigated with a broadband acoustic pointer with variable delay. Listeners' pointer adjustments were essentially dominated by onset ITD. Detection thresholds were obtained with two broadband continuous maskers, left-leading and diotic. MLDs of nearly 12 dB were seen for the right-leading non-alternating probe when the masker was left leading. For the alternating ITD probes, thresholds improved when one or both ITDs in the probe differed from that of the masker. Threshold improvement was independent of the onset ITD. Similar results were obtained with the diotic masker, with the magnitude of the MLD being somewhat less. To rule out the possibility of the onset being masked by the noise masker at threshold, MLDs were obtained for trains with an exponentially decaying envelope with the onset 20 dB above the trailing portion of the trains. Detection thresholds obtained in a duration discrimination task revealed MLDs of smaller magnitude, but even with the onset enhanced, no effect of onset ITD was seen. These results showed that while onsets strongly influenced lateralization of the relatively long duration signals used in these experiments, MLDs were determined by the ongoing interaural differences. Subjects' performance in lateralization showed some inter-subject variability and variability across signals. Three out of four subjects also lateralized more strongly to the left than to the right. When lateralization was determined as a function of signal sensation level (SL), the effect of onset ITD became weaker or disappeared at low SLs. These results are generally consistent with the statistical decision theory based hypothesis of Houtgast and Plomp (1968) and suggested that while onset cues dominated lateral position, detection depended on the time-varying steady-state cues in the signals.

Two studies examined whether motivation influences the utilization of accessible trait constructs in person perception. Previous research shows that perceivers readily rely on both chronically and temporarily accessible trait constructs in social information processing. It has been proposed that this process is automatic in that it does not require many processing resources, that it occurs unintentionally, and that it runs autonomously to completion. The present studies were designed to examine the generality of these accessibility effects in person perception. The first study focused on chronically accessible constructs, and the second on temporarily accessible constructs. Outcome dependency should motivate the use of relatively complex information processing strategies, and so moderate the relatively automatic reliance on chronically and temporarily accessible constructs in person perception. Alternatively, to the extent that the relatively automatic reliance on chronically and temporarily accessible constructs is immune to motivation because it is immune to intent, outcome dependency should not influence whether or not perceivers utilize either kind of accessible trait constructs in social information processing. Both of these possibilities were examined. The results did not support the prediction that outcome dependency would moderate effects of either chronically or temporarily accessible trait constructs on person perception.

This study explores the use of single session hypnosis in the treatment of tobacco cigarette smoking cessation. A volunteer subject pool of 75 subjects was divided into three groups. One group received a single session relaxation hypnosis method with positive, future-oriented suggestions. The second group received Herbert Spiegel's single session hypnosis method (Spiegel, 1978). The third group was a modified waiting list control group. One week post-treatment results show cessation rates of 40% for relaxation hypnosis, 22% for the Spiegel method, and 5% for the no treatment control group. These rates declined at one month to 26%, 15% and 0%, respectively. Cessation rates reduced further at three months and remained the same at six months; relaxation hypnosis 15%; Spiegel method 11%; and control at 0%. Pearson Chi-Square Analysis showed the difference between groups to be significant at one week and at one month. At three months, the treatment effect was no longer evident and the groups were not significantly different. The secondary focus of this study was to compare the response distributions of post-treatment abstainers to those of continuing smokers on pre-treatment questionnaires. Significant differences indicate that abstainers had higher scores on five Multi-Dimensional Personality Questionnaire scales (Tellegen, 1982). Three scales (Absorption, Social Potency and Positive Affectivity) were significant at all follow-up periods. Two others (Well-Being and Well-Being II) were significant at one month and at one week and one month, respectively. Abstainers versus smokers were also compared on the Hypnotic Induction Profile (Spiegel, 1973). Induction scores were not significant but Eye-Roll Sign scores were significant. Abstainers versus smokers were also compared using demographics, smoking history, stages of change, and processes of change (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983, 1992). None of these variables were significant when comparing abstainers and smokers on pre-treatment questionnaires. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Social changes associated with aging were assessed in seven captive, socially-housed rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) over a fifteen year period encompassing early, middle, and late adulthood. The changes were evaluated with regard to existing theories about social aging in humans (the theories of social disengagement, activity, continuity, and selectivity). Both quantitative and qualitative measures, as well as analyses of sequential patterns of behavior were used to obtain a complete assessment of changes in social interactions. Analysis of the quantitative measures indicated that highly energetic, non-social behaviors decreased, while affiliative social behaviors either increased or remained stable with advancing age. Tension and agonistic behaviors also decreased. In addition, there were significant changes in the qualitative aspects of social interactions. The time spent in a given affiliative behavior (groom or social contact) increased and negative social interactions decreased across adulthood. The patterns of behavior associated with groom remained highly stable at all points during adulthood, while those associated with passive social contact were more variable. However, these patterns did become less diverse with age. These findings may indicate that groom is used to maintain social ties, while social contact is used for a larger number of social purposes. Although highly energetic activities declined with lower physical stamina in later adulthood, this was not associated with a general decrease in all behaviors. Social interactions were apparently enhanced as evidenced by the increased duration of affiliative behaviors and the decline in negative interactions. These findings do not support the theories of social disengagement or activity, but do provide some evidence to support the selectivity theory. The animals appeared to be maximizing their positive interactions, while minimizing their negative interactions with increased age. In addition, the stability in certain patterns of social behaviors, and the decrease in the diversity of behaviors associated with affiliative interactions further indicates that the establishment and maintenance of social relationships are important during all stages of adulthood, irrespective of advancing age.

Real-time models of classical conditioning were evaluated using simulation and behavioral techniques. Performance criteria included ability to account for aspects of the conditioned response (CR) during conditioning of the rabbit nictitating membrane response (NMR), such as development of CR topography and the dependency of conditioning on the interstimulus interval (ISI) elapsing between onsets of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli (CSs and USs). The models investigated included the Sutton-Barto-Desmond (SBD) model (Moore, Desmond, Berthier, Blazis, Sutton, and Barto, 1986), which predicts CR topography, and the Temporal Differences (TD) model (Sutton and Barto, 1987), which does not. Simulation studies addressed the impact of modifying the TD model to describe topography. The resultant model, called the TD$\sb{RTS}$ model, replicates the learning phenomena described by the TD model but is highly parameter-sensitive. Simulation studies showed the performance of the TD, TD$\sb{RTS}$, and SBD models to be similar in most respects. However, model predictions differ for simultaneous and backwards conditioning protocols involving single and multiple CSs. Behavioral verification of new predictions of the models was carried out using rabbit NMR conditioning. Experiment 1 showed that with fixed-trace-interval conditioning, conditioning increases with CS duration, a result consistent with the SBD but not the TD model. Experiment 1 also showed a novel CS intensity by ISI interaction that none of the models explain. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1 and analysed response topography to illustrate problems caused by the CS representation assumed by the models. Experiments 3 and 4 investigated compound conditioning using one CS followed by simultaneous presentation of a second CS and US. Experiments 3 and 4 showed that conditioning to the compound occurred more readily than in controls when the first CS was less salient than the second. Experiment 3 presented weak evidence that the simultaneous CS was inhibitory. Of the models explored, the TD model most fully accounts for the results of Experiments 3 and 4. These computational and behavioral experiments suggested that the models might be better served by alternative CS representations, and highlighted the need for a resolution of issues in simultaneous conditioning. These points and future directions are discussed.

Eight rats (Rattus norwegicus) were individually exposed to either closed or open economies in a multioperant experimental setting with a proportional ratio reinforcement contingency imposed. Completion of successive ring pull ratios accrued visually signaled opportunities for access to food and/or water via further ratio completions on distinct levers. Successive pellet or water presentations decreased the remaining available food and water opportunities and when the last opportunity was depleted, subjects were returned to the ring pull option only. Experiment 1 compared the effects of a simple and forced savings proportional schedule. Rats "saved" when required to by the forced trials condition but substantial savings occurred in the simple proportional schedule irrespective of forced trials training. Assessment of responses occurring in the presence of specific discriminative stimuli indicated that the relevant operants were under adequate stimulus control. No systematic differences were observed in savings responses within closed or open economies and subsequent work was conducted in an open economy. Three of the subjects exhibited low rates of extended ring pull runs while five of the subjects emitted moderate to high savings responses. Experiment 2 compared the conditional probabilities of feeding and drinking bouts under a proportional schedule and a "free-choice" condition. Distributions of feeding and drinking bout lengths were similar across all subjects under the free-choice baseline and were not seen to covary in any way with the differences in ring pull run lengths observed among subjects under the proportional schedule conditions. Experiment 3 shifted each subject's baseline distribution of save runs to a higher proportion of extended save runs by increasing the response cost on the terminal food and water ratios following short save runs. Overall, the proportional schedule generated rates of saving, hoarding and putative examples of "self-control" in rats that were substantially greater than those previously reported in operant hoarding or self-control literature. The implications of proportional schedule effects for human performance are discussed.

The experiments reported here investigated how lexical information is used during word and sentence processing. Predictions of the Feature Dimension Proposal, according to which information in lexical entries in the mental lexicon is represented as features, were tested. Experiments 1-4 tested predictions made by a Vocabulary Type Proposal, which says that classes of words like closed class or open class words should be processed with the same ease as other words in their class and that context manipulations should not influence their processing, against predictions of a Significant Semantics Proposal, according to which ease of lexical processing is influenced by the amount of semantic content in the word's lexical entry. Experiments 1 and 2 replicated Taft's (1990) finding that cannot-stand-alone words lead to longer lexical decision reaction times than do can-stand-alone words, suggesting that the Vocabulary Type Proposal is insufficient. Experiments 3 and 4 showed that the results demonstrated in Experiments 1 and 2 did not occur when target words were placed in semantically neutral sentence contexts, supporting the Feature Dimension Proposal over the Significant Semantics Proposal. In Experiments 5, 6, and 7, results from lexical decision and naming tasks revealed a difference in priming within the closed class and open class vocabularies and also suggested that size of priming contexts influences stability of closed-class priming. In Experiment 8, using a cross-modal lexical decision task, Shillcock and Bard's (1991) finding of facilitated lexical decision responses to related open class targets presented at the offset of an open class/closed class homophone only in a context supporting the open class version of the homophone was replicated and extended. A processing advantage for closed class lexical decision targets existed if the lexical decision target was related to the closed class version of the homophone and the homophone was presented in a context supporting its closed class sense. This advantage was similar to, although smaller in magnitude than, the effect for open class target words. Implications about the nature of the human language processing system are discussed.

Rats given a footshock 2 min after placement in a box subsequently freeze much more in that box than rats given the shock immediately upon placement. This lack of freezing following the immediate-shock is termed the immediate-shock deficit (ISD), and it is presumed to reflect a learning failure. The purpose of my dissertation was to examine possible mechanisms for the ISD and to further characterize one-trial context fear conditioning. Experiment 1a found the ISD data pattern, but freezing was weak in the delay procedure. Experiment 1b used a smaller box and found enhanced freezing only in the delay procedure. Also, for the delay-shock rats, freezing was distributed on the test day such that freezing increased up to about the time that shock was given on the conditioning day and then decreased. Experiments 2a and 2b used the opioid blocker naloxone to see if the ISD was due to a reduced potency of the immediate-shock brought about by opioid analgesia. The results argued no. Also, for the first time, more freezing and defecation was found in immediate rats than in no-shock control rats. This finding was strengthened by the results of Experiment 3 which measured escape, side preference, side and nose crossings, freezing, and defecation. For each measure, the immediate-shock rats behaved more like the delay-shock rats than no-shock rats. The results of Experiments 2a, 2b, and 3 argue that the ISD is not a complete failure of learning, but instead is only a partial reduction in learning. Experiment 4 found that freezing after experiencing an immediate-shock is not an unconditional effect of shock, but instead reflects learning. Experiment 4 also found that rats shocked 2.5, 15, or 405 s after placement in box freeze less than rats shocked 45 or 135 s after placement. These results suggest that the ISD can be subsumed as a specific instance of a more general interstimulus interval (ISI) effect. Experiments 5a, 5b, and 5c, taken together, determined that an immediate-shock, while only weakly conditioning the context in which it was delivered, could condition other cues that enjoy a more favorable ISI with that shock. This result further suggests that the ISD is not due to any reduced shock potency, but due instead to an unfavorable ISI. The parallel between many of the results found here with those seen in more complex but better studied Pavlovian conditioning models argues that the one-trial context fear conditioning preparation can serve as a simple model system for studying Pavlovian conditioning.

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