The structure and organization of the spatial memory system of Clark's nutcrackers (Nucifraga columbiana) were examined using three different experimental paradigms. The natural history of Clark's nutcrackers implies that they are capable of processing large amounts of spatial information accurately. In Experiments 1 and 2, Clark's nutcrackers were tested for their ability to access spatial information using both stay and shift response strategies in an operant test of spatial memory. Not only were Clark's nutcrackers capable of using the two different response strategies equally well, but subtle differences were discovered in how birds using each strategy coded spatial information into memory. Stay birds appeared to remember serial components from the list of to-be-remembered spatial locations. The spatial configuration of the to-be-remembered spatial locations played more of a role in the ability of shift birds to remember spatial locations. In Experiment 3, a naturalistic study examining the role landmarks play in accurate site identification, Clark's nutcrackers relied heavily on tall ($>$.5m) landmarks and landmarks proximal ($<$.5m) to the to-be-located site. Nutcrackers were also flexible in which landmarks they could use as cues to locate a position in space. Nutcrackers were capable of using separate subsets of a larger configuration of landmarks around a to-be-located site in order to accurately locate the site. In Experiment 4, the area of the brain responsible for spatial information processing (hippocampal complex) was measured in Clark's nutcrackers and three related corvids that are less dependent on stores in the wild. Clark's nutcrackers were found to have a larger hippocampal complex than the other three species. All four experiments support the premise that Clark's nutcrackers are capable of processing spatial information both flexibly and rapidly.

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The literature contains a distinction between iconic causal relations as because he studied hard, he got a good grade and evidential causal relations as in because he got a good grade, he studied hard. The current research presents a theoretical analysis of the of these two categories and introduces a third category, the deductive causal relations as in because grading a paper is a subjective process, the teacher made some mistakes. It is argued that iconic causal relation is a relation between two actual, specific events and requires gap-filling inferences. Evidential and deductive relations are inferential and they represent a relation between evidence (in evidential) or a premise (in deductive) and a conclusion, hypothesis, or belief that the reader reaches depending on the evidence or premise. A series of 4 experiments were conducted to verify the predictions derived from the characteristics of each type of causal relations. Experiment 1 showed that deductive relation is a distinguished category that is more difficult than the iconic relation but easier than evidential ones. It was also found that adding an epistemic marker (e.g., I think) facilitated the interpretation of deductive and evidential relations but harmed the iconic relations. Experiments 2 and 3 tested the hypothesis that inferential, non-directly observable events such as those expressed in future tense or in psychological state verbs are more consistent with inferential relations (because they have to be inferred) than the events expressed in past tense or action verbs. The results of Experiments 2 and 3 showed that state verbs and future tense reduced the difficulty associated with inferential relations. Experiment 4 investigated the effect of the presupposition-assertion distinction on iconic and evidential relations. It was found that while the distinction is context-dependent in iconic relations, the main clause is preferred to be the presupposed in evidentials. The results were discussed in terms of the conditional nature of deductive relations and its being based on general, enabling conditions rather than upon real causes. Finally, a processing mechanism was suggested on the basis of the current results.

<p> Bilinguals have been found to outperform monolinguals across a variety of cognitive tasks (e.g., Bialystok, Craik, &amp; Luk, 2008). Research regarding the generalizability of the bilingual advantage in driving, however, has not been conclusive (Chong &amp; Strybel, 2015; Telner, Wiesenthal, Bialystok, &amp; York, 2008). This study aimed to investigate differences in monolingual and bilingual performance in a simulated driving task. The Lane Change Test (LCT) was used to assess driving performance in the presence of a peripheral detection task (PDT), delayed digit recall task (2-back task), and visuospatial task (clock task). Results demonstrated that both monolinguals and bilinguals performed equally across all tasks. Completing a cognitive task, however, was found to be detrimental to both driving and the detection of peripheral stimuli. Given the controversial nature of the bilingual advantage, possible explanations for the null results obtained for the two language profiles are discussed.</p>

<p> Contrary to the dominant view that generally equates feelings with poor thinking, converging evidence indicates that decisions &ndash; including those involving risk &ndash; are influenced by affective experiences. Research, however, is limited to studies on undifferentiated, global positive versus negative mood states; less is known about the influence of discrete emotions. The purpose of this research was to extend the affect-cognition literature by (a) examining the effects of discrete emotions varying along the dimensions of valence and arousal, and (b) identifying the systematic ways that discrete emotions underlie risky decision making. We used a set of emotion-laden IAPS images to elicit and compare the impact of incidental emotions on risky decision making. One hundred and twenty-two undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of the four affective conditions: excitement, contentment, fear, and sadness. Following the emotion induction procedure, participants completed the Choice Dilemmas Questionnaire (CDQ) to assess their risk-taking propensity. Results indicated an interaction effect between valence and arousal for positive emotions, such that excited participants were significantly more risky in their decision making compared to contented participants. The discussion focuses on the theoretical and practical health implications of these findings. We recommend that future research capitalize on the insights gained from emotion research and use it favorably to improve decision making under risk. </p>

<p> While we believe our perceptions drive our reality, it is our sense of presence that ultimately determines how real an experience truly is. Whether we are fully immersed in a virtual world or captivated by conversation, presence governs our neurological processing, our psychological belief, and our physiological confirmation of all our experiences. Over the last several decades researchers have developed various study paradigms to qualify specific aspects of presence. However, little progress has been made in promoting a comprehensive framework that captures both self-reported responses as well as a full complement of correlative neurological and physiological sensor-based measurements. In this study, I employ a custom three-phase, proof-of-concept schema bridging multiple methodologies. First, exposure to an immersive media experience while collecting ECG and GSR sensor data. Second, administration of the Temple Presence Inventory with FACS and eye-tracking. Third, neurophysiological sensor measurements with EEG, eye-tracking, and FACS, along with ECG and GSR retests, during a randomized viewing of recordings from Phase I self-experience, others-experience, and a neutral-experience, to control for position bias and habituation. This phased correlation-meta-analysis, using sensor-fusion, will also introduce self-actuated mirror neuron response. In all, this study will prove that a holistic, multi-sensor measurement schema is best able to estimate the activation and relative intensity of personal presence and provide an objective assessment of mediated reality experiences. Keywords: presence, perception, augmented reality, virtual reality, mixed reality, AR, VR, MR, narrative transportation theory, flow theory, illusions, proprioception, somatosensory response, vestibular system, haptics, visual system, auditory system, immersion, measurement, mirror neurons, EEG, ECG, GSR, eye-tracking, FACS, reality metaphor </p>

<p> Discrepant findings in past research have led to two competing hypotheses regarding threat&rsquo;s effect on political ideology: the worldview defense and the conservative-shift hypotheses. According to the former, supported by terror management theory (TMT), threat will cause liberals to become more liberal and conservatives to become more conservative (political polarization). According to the latter, supported by system justification theory (SJT) and the theory of political conservatism as motivated social cognition, threat will cause liberals to become more conservative, and conservatives either to become more conservative or to remain at their current level of conservatism. To pit these two hypotheses against one another in a single experiment, it was tested whether making participants&rsquo; political views salient might influence the way that threat affects political views. It was predicted that when liberals wrote about their liberal views and when conservatives wrote about their conservative views, to make their political views more salient, threat would lead to greater political polarization. This was predicted because past TMT research has shown that threat will lead to a more fervent adherence to salient values, not to all aspects of a worldview. Thus, the salience of people&rsquo;s political views should make them more likely to adhere to them following threat. On the other hand, it was predicted that in the control condition, all participants would become more conservative. This appears likely because of abundant past evidence that threat leads to greater conservatism and because threat tends to activate brain areas that are also associated with conservatism. It was, furthermore, predicted that threat might make liberal participants, but not conservative participants, less likely to participate in politics, because past research has shown that liberals will withdraw from participation in politics when they are more authoritarian, and threat tends to make people behave more like authoritarians. The former hypothesis was not supported; in fact, the only effect found was that conservatives became more liberal under threat, a finding that has no precedent in the literature. However, there was partial support for the latter hypothesis: both liberals and conservatives showed less of an intent to participate in politics following threat.</p><p>

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Lehigh University, 2009. / Adviser: Michael J. Gill.